"A"

A - Alpha, the first letter of the Greek alphabet, as Omega is the last. These letters occur in the text of Rev. 1:8,11; 21:6; 22:13, and are represented by "Alpha" and "Omega" respectively (omitted in R.V., 1:11). They mean "the first and last." (Comp. Heb. 12:2; Isa. 41:4; 44:6; Rev. 1:11,17; 2:8.) In the symbols of the early Christian Church these two letters are frequently combined with the cross or with Christ's monogram to denote his divinity.

Aaron - the eldest son of Amram and Jochebed, a daughter of Levi (Ex. 6:20). Some explain the name as meaning mountaineer, others mountain of strength, illuminator. He was born in Egypt three years before his brother Moses, and a number of years after his sister Miriam (2:1,4; 7:7). He married Elisheba, the daughter of Amminadab of the house of Judah (6:23; 1 Chr. 2:10), by whom he had four sons, Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. When the time for the deliverance of Isarael out of Egypt drew nigh, he was sent by God (Ex. 4:14,27-30) to meet his long-absent brother, that he might co-operate with him in all that they were required to do in bringing about the Exodus. He was to be the "mouth" or "prophet" of Moses, i.e., was to speak for him, because he was a man of a ready utterance (7:1,2,9,10,19). He was faithful to his trust, and stood by Moses in all his interviews with Pharaoh.

When the ransomed tribes fought their first battle with Amalek in Rephidim, Moses stood on a hill overlooking the scene of the conflict with the rod of God in his outstretched hand. On this occasion he was attended by Aaron and Hur, his sister's husband, who held up his wearied hands till Joshua and the chosen warriors of Israel gained the victory (17:8-13).

Afterwards, when encamped before Sinai, and when Moses at the command of God ascended the mount to receive the tables of the law, Aaron and his two sons, Nadab and Abihu, along with seventy of the elders of Israel, were permitted to accompany him part of the way, and to behold afar off the manifestation of the glory of Israel's God (Ex. 19:24; 24:9-11). While Moses remained on the mountain with God, Aaron returned unto the people; and yielding through fear, or ignorance, or instability of character, to their clamour, made unto them a golden calf, and set it up as an object of worship (Ex. 32:4; Ps. 106:19). On the return of Moses to the camp, Aaron was sternly rebuked by him for the part he had acted in this matter; but he interceded for him before God, who forgave his sin (Deut. 9:20).

On the mount, Moses received instructions regarding the system of worship which was to be set up among the people; and in accordance therewith Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the priest's office (Lev. 8; 9). Aaron, as high priest, held henceforth the prominent place appertaining to that office.

When Israel had reached Hazeroth, in "the wilderness of Paran," Aaron joined with his sister Miriam in murmuring against Moses, "because of the Ethiopian woman whom he had married," probably after the death of Zipporah. But the Lord vindicated his servant Moses, and punished Miriam with leprosy (Num. 12). Aaron acknowledged his own and his sister's guilt, and at the intercession of Moses they were forgiven.

Twenty years after this, when the children of Israel were encamped in the wilderness of Paran, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram conspired against Aaron and his sons; but a fearful judgment from God fell upon them, and they were destroyed, and the next day thousands of the people also perished by a fierce pestilence, the ravages of which were only stayed by the interposition of Aaron (Num. 16). That there might be further evidence of the divine appointment of Aaron to the priestly office, the chiefs of the tribes were each required to bring to Moses a rod bearing on it the name of his tribe. And these, along with the rod of Aaron for the tribe of Levi, were laid up overnight in the tabernacle, and in the morning it was found that while the other rods remained unchanged, that of Aaron "for the house of Levi" budded, blossomed, and yielded almonds (Num. 17:1-10). This rod was afterwards preserved in the tabernacle (Heb. 9:4) as a memorial of the divine attestation of his appointment to the priesthood.

Aaron was implicated in the sin of his brother at Meribah (Num. 20:8-13), and on that account was not permitted to enter the Promised Land. When the tribes arrived at Mount Hor, "in the edge of the land of Edom," at the command of God Moses led Aaron and his son Eleazar to the top of that mountain, in the sight of all the people. There he stripped Aaron of his priestly vestments, and put them upon Eleazar; and there Aaron died on the top of the mount, being 123 years old (Num. 20:23-29. Comp. Deut. 10:6; 32:50), and was "gathered unto his people." The people, "even all the house of Israel," mourned for him thirty days. Of Aaron's sons two survived him, Eleazar, whose family held the high-priesthood till the time of Eli; and Ithamar, in whose family, beginning with Eli, the high-priesthood was held till the time of Solomon. Aaron's other two sons had been struck dead (Lev. 10:1,2) for the daring impiety of offering "strange fire" on the alter of incense.

The Arabs still show with veneration the traditionary site of Aaron's grave on one of the two summits of Mount Hor, which is marked by a Mohammedan chapel. His name is mentioned in the Koran, and there are found in the writings of the rabbins many fabulous stories regarding him.

He was the first anointed priest. His descendants, "the house of Aaron," constituted the priesthood in general. In the time of David they were very numerous (1 Chr. 12:27). The other branches of the tribe of Levi held subordinate positions in connection with the sacred office. Aaron was a type of Christ in his official character as the high priest. His priesthood was a "shadow of heavenly things," and was intended to lead the people of Israel to look forward to the time when "another priest" would arise "after the order of Melchizedek" (Heb. 6:20). (See MOSES.)

Aaronites - the descendants of Aaron, and therefore priests. Jehoiada, the father of Benaiah, led 3,700 Aaronites as "fighting men" to the support of David at Hebron (1 Chr. 12:27). Eleazar (Num. 3:32), and at a later period Zadok (1 Chr. 27:17), was their chief.

Abaddon - destruction, the Hebrew name (equivalent to the Greek Apollyon, i.e., destroyer) of "the angel of the bottomless pit" (Rev. 9:11). It is rendered "destruction" in Job 28:22; 31:12; 26:6; Prov. 15:11; 27:20. In the last three of these passages the Revised Version retains the word "Abaddon." We may regard this word as a personification of the idea of destruction, or as sheol, the realm of the dead.

Abagtha - one of the seven eunuchs in Ahasuerus's court (Esther 1:10; 2:21).

Abana - stony (Heb. marg. "Amanah," perennial), the chief river of Damascus (2 Kings 5:12). Its modern name is Barada, the Chrysorrhoas, or "golden stream," of the Greeks. It rises in a cleft of the Anti-Lebanon range, about 23 miles north-west of Damascus, and after flowing southward for a little way parts into three smaller streams, the central one flowing through Damascus, and the other two on each side of the city, diffusing beauty and fertility where otherwise there would be barrenness.

Abarim - regions beyond; i.e., on the east of Jordan, a mountain, or rather a mountain-chain, over against Jericho, to the east and south-east of the Dead Sea, in the land of Moab. From "the top of Pisgah", i.e., Mount Nebo (q.v.), one of its summits, Moses surveyed the Promised Land (Deut. 3:27; 32:49), and there he died (34:1,5). The Israelites had one of their encampments in the mountains of Abarim (Num. 33:47,48) after crossing the Arnon.

Abba - This Syriac or Chaldee word is found three times in the New Testament (Mark 14:36; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6), and in each case is followed by its Greek equivalent, which is translated "father." It is a term expressing warm affection and filial confidence. It has no perfect equivalent in our language. It has passed into European languages as an ecclesiastical term, "abbot."

Abda - servant. (1.) The father of Adoniram, whom Solomon set over the tribute (1 Kings 4:6); i.e., the forced labour (R.V., "levy").

(2.) A Levite of the family of Jeduthun (Neh. 11:17), also called Obadiah (1 Chr. 9:16).

Abdeel - servant of God, (Jer. 36:26), the father of Shelemiah.

Abdi - my servant. (1.) 1 Chr. 6:44. (2.) 2 Chr. 29:12. (3.) Ezra 10:26.

Abdiel - servant of God, (1 Chr. 5:15), a Gadite chief.

Abdon - servile. (1.) The son of Hillel, a Pirathonite, the tenth judge of Israel (Judg. 12:13-15). He is probably the Bedan of 1 Sam. 12:11.

(2.) The first-born of Gibeon of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36).

(3.) The son of Micah, one of those whom Josiah sent to the prophetess Huldah to ascertain from her the meaning of the recently discovered book of the law (2 Chr. 34:20). He is called Achbor in 2 Kings 22:12.

(4.) One of the "sons" of Shashak (1 Chr. 8:23).

This is the name also of a Levitical town of the Gershonites, in the tribe of Asher (Josh. 21:30; 1 Chr. 6:74). The ruins of Abdeh, some 8 miles north-east of Accho, probably mark its site.

Abednego - servant of Nego=Nebo, the Chaldee name given to Azariah, one of Daniel's three companions (Dan. 2:49). With Shadrach and Meshach, he was delivered from the burning fiery furnace (3:12-30).

Abel - (Heb. Hebhel), a breath, or vanity, the second son of Adam and Eve. He was put to death by his brother Cain (Gen. 4:1-16). Guided by the instruction of their father, the two brothers were trained in the duty of worshipping God. "And in process of time" (marg. "at the end of days", i.e., on the Sabbath) each of them offered up to God of the first-fruits of his labours. Cain, as a husbandman, offered the fruits of the field; Abel, as a shepherd, of the firstlings of his flock. "The Lord had respect unto Abel and his offering; but unto Cain and his offering he had not respect" (Gen. 4:3-5). On this account Cain was angry with his brother, and formed the design of putting him to death; a design which he at length found an opportunity of carrying into effect (Gen. 4:8,9. Comp. 1 John 3:12). There are several references to Abel in the New Testament. Our Saviour speaks of him as "righteous" (Matt. 23:35). "The blood of sprinkling" is said to speak "better things than that of Abel" (Heb. 12:24); i.e., the blood of Jesus is the reality of which the blood of the offering made by Abel was only the type. The comparison here is between the sacrifice offered by Christ and that offered by Abel, and not between the blood of Christ calling for mercy and the blood of the murdered Abel calling for vengeance, as has sometimes been supposed. It is also said (Heb. 11:4) that "Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain." This sacrifice was made "by faith;" this faith rested in God, not only as the Creator and the God of providence, but especially in God as the great Redeemer, whose sacrifice was typified by the sacrifices which, no doubt by the divine institution, were offered from the days of Adam downward. On account of that "faith" which looked forward to the great atoning sacrifice, Abel's offering was accepted of God. Cain's offering had no such reference, and therefore was rejected. Abel was the first martyr, as he was the first of our race to die.

Abel (Heb. 'abhel), lamentation (1 Sam. 6:18), the name given to the great stone in Joshua's field whereon the ark was "set down." The Revised Version, however, following the Targum and the LXX., reads in the Hebrew text 'ebhen (= a stone), and accordingly translates "unto the great stone, whereon they set down the ark." This reading is to be preferred.

Abel (Heb. 'abhel), a grassy place, a meadow. This word enters into the composition of the following words:

Abel-beth-maachah - meadow of the house of Maachah, a city in the north of Palestine, in the neighbourhood of Dan and Ijon, in the tribe of Naphtali. It was a place of considerable strength and importance. It is called a "mother in Israel", i.e., a metropolis (2 Sam. 20:19). It was besieged by Joab (2 Sam. 20:14), by Benhadad (1 Kings 15:20), and by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15:29) about B.C. 734. It is elsewhere called Abel-maim, meadow of the waters, (2 Chr. 16:4). Its site is occupied by the modern Abil or Abil-el-kamh, on a rising ground to the east of the brook Derdarah, which flows through the plain of Huleh into the Jordan, about 6 miles to the west-north-west of Dan.

Abel-cheramim - (Judg. 11:33, R.V.; A. V., "plain of the vineyards"), a village of the Ammonites, whither Jephthah pursued their forces.

Abel-meholah - meadow of dancing, or the dancing-meadow, the birth-place and residence of the prophet Elisha, not far from Beth-shean (1 Kings 4:12), in the tribe of Issachar, near where the Wady el-Maleh emerges into the valley of the Jordan, "the rich meadow-land which extends about 4 miles south of Beth-shean; moist and luxuriant." Here Elisha was found at his plough by Elijah on his return up the Jordan valley from Horeb (1 Kings 19:16). It is now called 'Ain Helweh.

Abel-mizraim - meadow of Egypt, or mourning of Egypt, a place "beyond," i.e., on the west of Jordan, at the "threshing-floor of Atad." Here the Egyptians mourned seventy days for Jacob (Gen. 50:4-11). Its site is unknown.

Abel-shittim - meadow of the acacias, frequently called simply "Shittim" (Num. 25:1; Josh. 2:1; Micah 6:5), a place on the east of Jordan, in the plain of Moab, nearly opposite Jericho. It was the forty-second encampment of the Israelites, their last resting-place before they crossed the Jordan (Num. 33:49; 22:1; 26:3; 31:12; comp. 25:1; 31:16).

Abez - tin, or white, a town in the tribe of Issachar (Josh. 19:20), at the north of the plain of Esdraelon. It is probably identified with the ruins of el-Beida.

Abia - my father is the Lord, the Greek form of Abijah, or Abijam (Matt. 1:7), instead of Abiah (1 Chr. 7:8). In Luke 1:5, the name refers to the head of the eighth of the twenty-four courses into which David divided the priests (1 Chr. 24:10).

Abi-albon - father of strength; i.e., "valiant", one of David's body-guard of thirty mighty men (2 Sam. 23:31); called also Abiel (1 Chr. 11:32).

Abiasaph - father of gathering; the gatherer, the youngest of the three sons of Korah the Levite, head of a family of Korhites (Ex. 6:24); called Ebisaph (1 Chr. 6:37).

Abiathar - father of abundance, or my father excels, the son of Ahimelech the high priest. He was the tenth high priest, and the fourth in descent from Eli. When his father was slain with the priests of Nob, he escaped, and bearing with him the ephod, he joined David, who was then in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. 22:20-23; 23:6). He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader (1 Sam. 30:7). When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed high priest (1 Chr. 15:11; 1 Kings 2:26) and the "king's companion" (1 Chr. 27:34). Meanwhile Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made high priest. These appointments continued in force till the end of David's reign (1 Kings 4:4). Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar (1 Sam. 2:30-36; 1 Kings 1:19; 2:26, 27). Zadok now became sole high priest. In Mark 2:26, reference is made to an occurrence in "the days of Abiathar the high priest." But from 1 Sam. 22, we learn explicitly that this event took place when Ahimelech, the father of Abiathar, was high priest. The apparent discrepancy is satisfactorily explained by interpreting the words in Mark as referring to the life-time of Abiathar, and not to the term of his holding the office of high priest. It is not implied in Mark that he was actual high priest at the time referred to. Others, however, think that the loaves belonged to Abiathar, who was at that time (Lev. 24:9) a priest, and that he either himself gave them to David, or persuaded his father to give them.

Abib - an ear of corn, the month of newly-ripened grain (Ex. 13:4; 23:15); the first of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, and the seventh of the civil year. It began about the time of the vernal equinox, on 21st March. It was called Nisan, after the Captivity (Neh. 2:1). On the fifteenth day of the month, harvest was begun by gathering a sheaf of barley, which was offered unto the Lord on the sixteenth (Lev. 23:4-11).

Abida - or Abi'dah, father of knowledge; knowing, one of the five sons of Midian, who was the son of Abraham by Keturah (1 Chr. 1:33), and apparently the chief of an Arab tribe.

Abidan - father of judgment; judge, head of the tribe of Benjamin at the Exodus (Num. 1:11; 2:22).

Abieezer - father of help; i.e., "helpful." (1.) The second of the three sons of Hammoleketh, the sister of Gilead. He was the grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr. 7:18). From his family Gideon sprang (Josh. 17:2; comp. Judg. 6:34; 8:2). He was also called Jeezer (Num. 26:30).

(2.) One of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23:27; comp. 1 Chr. 27:12).

(3.) The prince of the tribe of Dan at the Exodus (Num. 1:12).

Abiel - father (i.e., "possessor") of God = "pious." (1.) The son of Zeror and father of Ner, who was the grandfather of Saul (1 Sam. 14:51; 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39). In 1 Sam. 9:1, he is called the "father," probably meaning the grandfather, of Kish. (2.) An Arbathite, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:32); called also Abi-albon (2 Sam. 23:31).

Abiezrite - father of help, a descendant of Abiezer (Judg. 6:11,24; 8:32).

Abigail - father (i.e., "leader") of the dance, or "of joy." (1.) The sister of David, and wife of Jether an Ishmaelite (1 Chr. 2:16,17). She was the mother of Amasa (2 Sam. 17:25).

(2.) The wife of the churlish Nabal, who dwelt in the district of Carmel (1 Sam. 25:3). She showed great prudence and delicate management at a critical period of her husband's life. She was "a woman of good understanding, and of a beautiful countenance." After Nabal's death she became the wife of David (1 Sam. 25:14-42), and was his companion in all his future fortunes (1 Sam. 27:3; 30:5; 2 Sam. 2:2). By her David had a son called Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3), elsewhere called Daniel (1 Chr. 3:1).

Abihail - father of might. (1.) Num. 3:35. (2.) 1 Chr. 2:29. (3.) 1 Chr. 5:14.

(4.) The second wife of King Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11:18), a descendant of Eliab, David's eldest brother.

(5.) The father of Esther and uncle of Mordecai (Esther 2:15).

Abihu - father of Him; i.e., "worshipper of God", the second of the sons of Aaron (Ex. 6:23; Num. 3:2; 26:60; 1 Chr. 6:3). Along with his three brothers he was consecrated to the priest's office (Ex. 28:1). With his father and elder brother he accompanied the seventy elders part of the way up the mount with Moses (Ex. 24:1,9). On one occasion he and Nadab his brother offered incense in their censers filled with "strange" (i.e., common) fire, i.e., not with fire taken from the great brazen altar (Lev. 6:9, etc.), and for this offence they were struck dead, and were taken out and buried without the camp (Lev. 10:1-11; comp. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1 Chr. 24:2). It is probable that when they committed this offence they were intoxicated, for immediately after is given the law prohibiting the use of wine or strong drink to the priests.

Abihud - father (i.e., "possessor") of renown. (1.) One of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:3); called also Ahihud (ver. 7).

(2.) A descendant of Zerubbabel and father of Eliakim (Matt. 1:13, "Abiud"); called also Juda (Luke 3:26), and Obadiah (1 Chr. 3:21).

Abijah - father (i.e., "possessor or worshipper") of Jehovah. (1.) 1 Chr. 7:8. (2.) 1 Chr. 2:24.

(3.) The second son of Samuel (1 Sam. 8:2; 1 Chr. 6:28). His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beer-sheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a royal form of government.

(4.) A descendant of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by David (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah was one of those which did not return from the Captivity (Ezra 2:36-39; Neh. 7:39-42; 12:1).

(5.) The son of Rehoboam, whom he succeeded on the throne of Judah (1 Chr. 3:10). He is also called Abijam (1 Kings 14:31; 15:1-8). He began his three years' reign (2 Chr. 12:16; 13:1,2) with a strenuous but unsuccessful effort to bring back the ten tribes to their allegiance. His address to "Jeroboam and all Israel," before encountering them in battle, is worthy of being specially noticed (2 Chr. 13:5-12). It was a very bloody battle, no fewer than 500,000 of the army of Israel having perished on the field. He is described as having walked "in all the sins of his father" (1 Kings 15:3; 2 Chr. 11:20-22). It is said in 1 Kings 15:2 that "his mother's name was Maachah, the daughter of Abishalom;" but in 2 Chr. 13:2 we read, "his mother's name was Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of Gibeah." The explanation is that Maachah is just a variation of the name Michaiah, and that Abishalom is probably the same as Absalom, the son of David. It is probable that "Uriel of Gibeah" married Tamar, the daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. 14:27), and by her had Maachah. The word "daughter" in 1 Kings 15:2 will thus, as it frequently elsewhere does, mean grand-daughter.

(6.) A son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found "some good thing toward the Lord," he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and "all Israel mourned for him" (1 Kings 14:1-18).

(7.) The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 29:1; comp. Isa. 8:2), and afterwards the wife of Ahaz. She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).

(8.) One of the sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8). "Abiah," A.V.

Abijam - father of the sea; i.e., "seaman" the name always used in Kings of the king of Judah, the son of Rehoboam, elsewhere called Abijah (1 Kings 15:1,7,8). (See ABIJAH ¯T0000036, 5.)

Abilene - a plain, a district lying on the east slope of the Anti-Lebanon range; so called from its chief town, Abila (Luke 3:1), which stood in the Suk Wady Barada, between Heliopolis (Baalbec) and Damascus, 38 miles from the former and 18 from the latter. Lysanias was governor or tetrarch of this province.

Abimael - father of Mael, one of the sons or descendants of Joktan, in Northern Arabia (Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22).

Abimelech - my father a king, or father of a king, a common name of the Philistine kings, as "Pharaoh" was of the Egyptian kings. (1.) The Philistine king of Gerar in the time of Abraham (Gen. 20:1-18). By an interposition of Providence, Sarah was delivered from his harem, and was restored to her husband Abraham. As a mark of respect he gave to Abraham valuable gifts, and offered him a settlement in any part of his country; while at the same time he delicately and yet severely rebuked him for having practised a deception upon him in pretending that Sarah was only his sister. Among the gifts presented by the king were a thousand pieces of silver as a "covering of the eyes" for Sarah; i.e., either as an atoning gift and a testimony of her innocence in the sight of all, or rather for the purpose of procuring a veil for Sarah to conceal her beauty, and thus as a reproof to her for not having worn a veil which, as a married woman, she ought to have done. A few years after this Abimelech visited Abraham, who had removed southward beyond his territory, and there entered into a league of peace and friendship with him. This league was the first of which we have any record. It was confirmed by a mutual oath at Beer-sheba (Gen. 21:22-34).

(2.) A king of Gerar in the time of Isaac, probably the son of the preceeding (Gen. 26:1-22). Isaac sought refuge in his territory during a famine, and there he acted a part with reference to his wife Rebekah similar to that of his father Abraham with reference to Sarah. Abimelech rebuked him for the deception, which he accidentally discovered. Isaac settled for a while here, and prospered. Abimelech desired him, however, to leave his territory, which Isaac did. Abimelech afterwards visited him when he was encamped at Beer-sheba, and expressed a desire to renew the covenant which had been entered into between their fathers (Gen. 26:26-31).

(3.) A son of Gideon (Judg. 9:1), who was proclaimed king after the death of his father (Judg. 8:33-9:6). One of his first acts was to murder his brothers, seventy in number, "on one stone," at Ophrah. Only one named Jotham escaped. He was an unprincipled, ambitious ruler, often engaged in war with his own subjects. When engaged in reducing the town of Thebez, which had revolted, he was struck mortally on his head by a mill-stone, thrown by the hand of a woman from the wall above. Perceiving that the wound was mortal, he desired his armour-bearer to thrust him through with his sword, that it might not be said he had perished by the hand of a woman (Judg. 9:50-57).

(4.) The son of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David (1 Chr. 18:16). In the parallel passage, 2 Sam. 8:17, we have the name Ahimelech, and Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech. This most authorities consider the more correct reading. (5.) Achish, king of Gath, in the title of Ps. 34. (Comp. 1 Sam. 21:10-15.)

Abinadab - father of nobleness; i.e., "noble." (1.) A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the ark of the covenant was deposited after having been brought back from the land of the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:1). It remained there twenty years, till it was at length removed by David (1 Sam. 7:1,2; 1 Chr. 13:7).

(2.) The second of the eight sons of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:8). He was with Saul in the campaign against the Philistines in which Goliath was slain (1 Sam. 17:13).

(3.) One of Saul's sons, who peristed with his father in the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 10:2).

(4.) One of Solomon's officers, who "provided victuals for the king and his household." He presided, for this purpose, over the district of Dor (1 Kings 4:11).

Abinoam - father of kindness, the father of Barak (Judg. 4:6; 5:1).

Abiram - father of height; i.e., "proud." (1.) One of the sons of Eliab, who joined Korah in the conspiracy against Moses and Aaron. He and all the conspirators, with their families and possessions (except the children of Korah), were swallowed up by an earthquake (Num. 16:1-27; 26:9; Ps. 106:17).

(2.) The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite, who perished prematurely in consequence of his father's undertaking to rebuild Jericho (1 Kings 16:34), according to the words of Joshua (6:26). (See JERICHO.)

Abishag - father of (i.e., "given to") error, a young woman of Shunem, distinguished for her beauty. She was chosen to minister to David in his old age. She became his wife (1 Kings 1:3,4,15). After David's death Adonijah persuaded Bathsheba, Solomon's mother, to entreat the king to permit him to marry Abishag. Solomon suspected in this request an aspiration to the throne, and therefore caused him to be put to death (1 Kings 2:17-25).

Abishai - father of (i.e., "desirous of") a gift, the eldest son of Zeruiah, David's sister. He was the brother of Joab and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18; 1 Chr. 2:16). Abishai was the only one who accompanied David when he went to the camp of Saul and took the spear and the cruse of water from Saul's bolster (1 Sam. 26:5-12). He had the command of one of the three divisions of David's army at the battle with Absalom (2 Sam. 18:2,5,12). He slew the Philistine giant Ishbi-benob, who threatened David's life (2 Sam. 21:15-17). He was the chief of the second rank of the three "mighties" (2 Sam. 23:18, 19; 1 Chr. 11:20,21); and on one occasion withstood 300 men, and slew them with his own spear (2 Sam. 23:18). Abishai is the name of the Semitic chief who offers gifts to the lord of Beni-Hassan. See illustration facing page 10.

Abishua - father of welfare; i.e., "fortunate." (1.) The grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:4).

(2.) The son of Phinehas the high priest (1 Chr. 6:4,5,50; Ezra 7:5).

Abishur - father of the wall; i.e., "mason", one of the two sons of Shammai of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 2:28,29).

Abital - father of dew; i.e., "fresh", David's fifth wife (2 Sam. 3:4).

Abitub - father of goodness, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:11).

Abjects - (Ps. 35:15), the translation of a Hebrew word meaning smiters; probably, in allusion to the tongue, slanderers. (Comp. Jer. 18:18.)

Ablution - or washing, was practised, (1.) When a person was initiated into a higher state: e.g., when Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priest's office, they were washed with water previous to their investiture with the priestly robes (Lev. 8:6).

(2.) Before the priests approached the altar of God, they were required, on pain of death, to wash their hands and their feet to cleanse them from the soil of common life (Ex. 30:17-21). To this practice the Psalmist alludes, Ps. 26:6.

(3.) There were washings prescribed for the purpose of cleansing from positive defilement contracted by particular acts. Of such washings eleven different species are prescribed in the Levitical law (Lev. 12-15).

(4.) A fourth class of ablutions is mentioned, by which a person purified or absolved himself from the guilt of some particular act. For example, the elders of the nearest village where some murder was committed were required, when the murderer was unknown, to wash their hands over the expiatory heifer which was beheaded, and in doing so to say, "Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it" (Deut. 21:1-9). So also Pilate declared himself innocent of the blood of Jesus by washing his hands (Matt. 27:24). This act of Pilate may not, however, have been borrowed from the custom of the Jews. The same practice was common among the Greeks and Romans.

The Pharisees carried the practice of ablution to great excess, thereby claiming extraordinary purity (Matt. 23:25). Mark (7:1-5) refers to the ceremonial ablutions. The Pharisees washed their hands "oft," more correctly, "with the fist" (R.V., "diligently"), or as an old father, Theophylact, explains it, "up to the elbow." (Compare also Mark 7:4; Lev. 6:28; 11: 32-36; 15:22) (See WASHING.)

Abner - father of light; i.e., "enlightening", the son of Ner and uncle of Saul. He was commander-in-chief of Saul's army (1 Sam. 14:50; 17:55; 20:25). He first introduced David to the court of Saul after the victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 17:57). After the death of Saul, David was made king over Judah, and reigned in Hebron. Among the other tribes there was a feeling of hostility to Judah; and Abner, at the head of Ephraim, fostered this hostility in the interest of the house of Saul, whose son Ish-bosheth he caused to be proclaimed king (2 Sam. 2:8). A state of war existed between these two kings. A battle fatal to Abner, who was the leader of Ish-boseth's army, was fought with David's army under Joab at Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:12). Abner, escaping from the field, was overtaken by Asahel, who was "light of foot as a wild roe," the brother of Joab and Abishai, whom he thrust through with a back stroke of his spear (2 Sam. 2: 18-32).

Being rebuked by Ish-bosheth for the impropriety of taking to wife Rizpah, who had been a concubine of King Saul, he found an excuse for going over to the side of David, whom he now professed to regard as anointed by the Lord to reign over all Israel. David received him favourably, and promised that he would have command of the armies. At this time Joab was absent from Hebron, but on his return he found what had happened. Abner had just left the city; but Joab by a stratagem recalled him, and meeting him at the gate of the city on his return, thrust him through with his sword (2 Sam. 3:27, 31-39; 4:12. Comp. 1 Kings 2:5, 32). David lamented in pathetic words the death of Abner, "Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel?" (2 Sam. 3:33-38.)

Abomination - This word is used, (1.) To express the idea that the Egyptians considered themselves as defiled when they ate with strangers (Gen. 43:32). The Jews subsequently followed the same practice, holding it unlawful to eat or drink with foreigners (John 18:28; Acts 10:28; 11:3).

(2.) Every shepherd was "an abomination" unto the Egyptians (Gen. 46:34). This aversion to shepherds, such as the Hebrews, arose probably from the fact that Lower and Middle Egypt had formerly been held in oppressive subjection by a tribe of nomad shepherds (the Hyksos), who had only recently been expelled, and partly also perhaps from this other fact that the Egyptians detested the lawless habits of these wandering shepherds.

(3.) Pharaoh was so moved by the fourth plague, that while he refused the demand of Moses, he offered a compromise, granting to the Israelites permission to hold their festival and offer their sacrifices in Egypt. This permission could not be accepted, because Moses said they would have to sacrifice "the abomination of the Egyptians" (Ex. 8:26); i.e., the cow or ox, which all the Egyptians held as sacred, and which they regarded it as sacrilegious to kill.

(4.) Daniel (11:31), in that section of his prophecies which is generally interpreted as referring to the fearful calamities that were to fall on the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, says, "And they shall place the abomination that maketh desolate." Antiochus Epiphanes caused an altar to be erected on the altar of burnt-offering, on which sacrifices were offered to Jupiter Olympus. (Comp. 1 Macc. 1:57). This was the abomination of the desolation of Jerusalem. The same language is employed in Dan. 9:27 (comp. Matt. 24:15), where the reference is probably to the image-crowned standards which the Romans set up at the east gate of the temple (A.D. 70), and to which they paid idolatrous honours. "Almost the entire religion of the Roman camp consisted in worshipping the ensign, swearing by the ensign, and in preferring the ensign before all other gods." These ensigns were an "abomination" to the Jews, the "abomination of desolation."

This word is also used symbolically of sin in general (Isa. 66:3); an idol (44:19); the ceremonies of the apostate Church of Rome (Rev. 17:4); a detestable act (Ezek. 22:11).

Abraham - father of a multitude, son of Terah, named (Gen. 11:27) before his older brothers Nahor and Haran, because he was the heir of the promises. Till the age of seventy, Abram sojourned among his kindred in his native country of Chaldea. He then, with his father and his family and household, quitted the city of Ur, in which he had hitherto dwelt, and went some 300 miles north to Haran, where he abode fifteen years. The cause of his migration was a call from God (Acts 7:2-4). There is no mention of this first call in the Old Testament; it is implied, however, in Gen. 12. While they tarried at Haran, Terah died at the age of 205 years. Abram now received a second and more definite call, accompanied by a promise from God (Gen. 12:1,2); whereupon he took his departure, taking his nephew Lot with him, "not knowing whither he went" (Heb. 11:8). He trusted implicitly to the guidance of Him who had called him.

Abram now, with a large household of probably a thousand souls, entered on a migratory life, and dwelt in tents. Passing along the valley of the Jabbok, in the land of Canaan, he formed his first encampment at Sichem (Gen. 12:6), in the vale or oak-grove of Moreh, between Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the south. Here he received the great promise, "I will make of thee a great nation," etc. (Gen. 12:2,3,7). This promise comprehended not only temporal but also spiritual blessings. It implied that he was the chosen ancestor of the great Deliverer whose coming had been long ago predicted (Gen. 3:15). Soon after this, for some reason not mentioned, he removed his tent to the mountain district between Bethel, then called Luz, and Ai, towns about two miles apart, where he built an altar to "Jehovah." He again moved into the southern tract of Palestine, called by the Hebrews the Negeb; and was at length, on account of a famine, compelled to go down into Egypt. This took place in the time of the Hyksos, a Semitic race which now held the Egyptians in bondage. Here occurred that case of deception on the part of Abram which exposed him to the rebuke of Pharaoh (Gen. 12:18). Sarai was restored to him; and Pharaoh loaded him with presents, recommending him to withdraw from the country. He returned to Canaan richer than when he left it, "in cattle, in silver, and in gold" (Gen. 12:8; 13:2. Comp. Ps. 105:13, 14). The whole party then moved northward, and returned to their previous station near Bethel. Here disputes arose between Lot's shepherds and those of Abram about water and pasturage. Abram generously gave Lot his choice of the pasture-ground. (Comp. 1 Cor. 6:7.) He chose the well-watered plain in which Sodom was situated, and removed thither; and thus the uncle and nephew were separated. Immediately after this Abram was cheered by a repetition of the promises already made to him, and then removed to the plain or "oak-grove" of Mamre, which is in Hebron. He finally settled here, pitching his tent under a famous oak or terebinth tree, called "the oak of Mamre" (Gen. 13:18). This was his third resting-place in the land.

Some fourteen years before this, while Abram was still in Chaldea, Palestine had been invaded by Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, who brought under tribute to him the five cities in the plain to which Lot had removed. This tribute was felt by the inhabitants of these cities to be a heavy burden, and after twelve years they revolted. This brought upon them the vengeance of Chedorlaomer, who had in league with him four other kings. He ravaged the whole country, plundering the towns, and carrying the inhabitants away as slaves. Among those thus treated was Lot. Hearing of the disaster that had fallen on his nephew, Abram immediately gathered from his own household a band of 318 armed men, and being joined by the Amoritish chiefs Mamre, Aner, and Eshcol, he pursued after Chedorlaomer, and overtook him near the springs of the Jordan. They attacked and routed his army, and pursued it over the range of Anti-Libanus as far as to Hobah, near Damascus, and then returned, bringing back all the spoils that had been carried away. Returning by way of Salem, i.e., Jerusalem, the king of that place, Melchizedek, came forth to meet them with refreshments. To him Abram presented a tenth of the spoils, in recognition of his character as a priest of the most high God (Gen. 14:18-20).

In a recently-discovered tablet, dated in the reign of the grandfather of Amraphel (Gen. 14:1), one of the witnesses is called "the Amorite, the son of Abiramu," or Abram.

Having returned to his home at Mamre, the promises already made to him by God were repeated and enlarged (Gen. 13:14). "The word of the Lord" (an expression occurring here for the first time) "came to him" (15:1). He now understood better the future that lay before the nation that was to spring from him. Sarai, now seventy-five years old, in her impatience, persuaded Abram to take Hagar, her Egyptian maid, as a concubine, intending that whatever child might be born should be reckoned as her own. Ishmael was accordingly thus brought up, and was regarded as the heir of these promises (Gen. 16). When Ishmael was thirteen years old, God again revealed yet more explicitly and fully his gracious purpose; and in token of the sure fulfilment of that purpose the patriarch's name was now changed from Abram to Abraham (Gen. 17:4,5), and the rite of circumcision was instituted as a sign of the covenant. It was then announced that the heir to these covenant promises would be the son of Sarai, though she was now ninety years old; and it was directed that his name should be Isaac. At the same time, in commemoration of the promises, Sarai's name was changed to Sarah. On that memorable day of God's thus revealing his design, Abraham and his son Ishmael and all the males of his house were circumcised (Gen. 17). Three months after this, as Abraham sat in his tent door, he saw three men approaching. They accepted his proffered hospitality, and, seated under an oak-tree, partook of the fare which Abraham and Sarah provided. One of the three visitants was none other than the Lord, and the other two were angels in the guise of men. The Lord renewed on this occasion his promise of a son by Sarah, who was rebuked for her unbelief. Abraham accompanied the three as they proceeded on their journey. The two angels went on toward Sodom; while the Lord tarried behind and talked with Abraham, making known to him the destruction that was about to fall on that guilty city. The patriarch interceded earnestly in behalf of the doomed city. But as not even ten righteous persons were found in it, for whose sake the city would have been spared, the threatened destruction fell upon it; and early next morning Abraham saw the smoke of the fire that consumed it as the "smoke of a furnace" (Gen. 19:1-28).

After fifteen years' residence at Mamre, Abraham moved southward, and pitched his tent among the Philistines, near to Gerar. Here occurred that sad instance of prevarication on his part in his relation to Abimelech the King (Gen. 20). (See ABIMELECH.) Soon after this event, the patriarch left the vicinity of Gerar, and moved down the fertile valley about 25 miles to Beer-sheba. It was probably here that Isaac was born, Abraham being now an hundred years old. A feeling of jealousy now arose between Sarah and Hagar, whose son, Ishmael, was no longer to be regarded as Abraham's heir. Sarah insisted that both Hagar and her son should be sent away. This was done, although it was a hard trial to Abraham (Gen. 21:12). (See HAGAR ¯T0001583; ISHMAEL.)

At this point there is a blank in the patriarch's history of perhaps twenty-five years. These years of peace and happiness were spent at Beer-sheba. The next time we see him his faith is put to a severe test by the command that suddenly came to him to go and offer up Isaac, the heir of all the promises, as a sacrifice on one of the mountains of Moriah. His faith stood the test (Heb. 11:17-19). He proceeded in a spirit of unhesitating obedience to carry out the command; and when about to slay his son, whom he had laid on the altar, his uplifted hand was arrested by the angel of Jehovah, and a ram, which was entangled in a thicket near at hand, was seized and offered in his stead. From this circumstance that place was called Jehovah-jireh, i.e., "The Lord will provide." The promises made to Abraham were again confirmed (and this was the last recorded word of God to the patriarch); and he descended the mount with his son, and returned to his home at Beer-sheba (Gen. 22:19), where he resided for some years, and then moved northward to Hebron.

Some years after this Sarah died at Hebron, being 127 years old. Abraham acquired now the needful possession of a burying-place, the cave of Machpelah, by purchase from the owner of it, Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23); and there he buried Sarah. His next care was to provide a wife for Isaac, and for this purpose he sent his steward, Eliezer, to Haran (or Charran, Acts 7:2), where his brother Nahor and his family resided (Gen. 11:31). The result was that Rebekah, the daughter of Nahor's son Bethuel, became the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24). Abraham then himself took to wife Keturah, who became the mother of six sons, whose descendants were afterwards known as the "children of the east" (Judg. 6:3), and later as "Saracens." At length all his wanderings came to an end. At the age of 175 years, 100 years after he had first entered the land of Canaan, he died, and was buried in the old family burying-place at Machpelah (Gen. 25:7-10).

The history of Abraham made a wide and deep impression on the ancient world, and references to it are interwoven in the religious traditions of almost all Eastern nations. He is called "the friend of God" (James 2:23), "faithful Abraham" (Gal. 3:9), "the father of us all" (Rom. 4:16).

Abraham's bosom - (Luke 16:22,23) refers to the custom of reclining on couches at table, which was prevalent among the Jews, an arrangement which brought the head of one person almost into the bosom of the one who sat or reclined above him. To "be in Abraham's bosom" thus meant to enjoy happiness and rest (Matt. 8:11; Luke 16:23) at the banquet in Paradise. (See BANQUET ¯T0000434; MEALS.)

Abram - exalted father. (see ABRAHAM.)

Abronah - R.V., one of Israel's halting-places in the desert (Num.33:34,35), just before Ezion-gaber. In A.V., "Ebronah."

Absalom - father of peace; i.e., "peaceful" David's son by Maacah (2 Sam. 3:3; comp. 1 Kings 1:6). He was noted for his personal beauty and for the extra-ordinary profusion of the hair of his head (2 Sam. 14:25,26). The first public act of his life was the blood-revenge he executed against Amnon, David's eldest son, who had basely wronged Absalom's sister Tamar. This revenge was executed at the time of the festivities connected with a great sheep-shearing at Baal-hazor. David's other sons fled from the place in horror, and brought the tidings of the death of Amnon to Jerusalem. Alarmed for the consequences of the act, Absalom fled to his grandfather at Geshur, and there abode for three years (2 Sam. 3:3; 13:23-38).

David mourned his absent son, now branded with the guilt of fratricide. As the result of a stratagem carried out by a woman of Tekoah, Joab received David's sanction to invite Absalom back to Jerusalem. He returned accordingly, but two years elapsed before his father admitted him into his presence (2 Sam. 14:28). Absalom was now probably the oldest surviving son of David, and as he was of royal descent by his mother as well as by his father, he began to aspire to the throne. His pretensions were favoured by the people. By many arts he gained their affection; and after his return from Geshur (2 Sam. 15:7; marg., R.V.) he went up to Hebron, the old capital of Judah, along with a great body of the people, and there proclaimed himself king. The revolt was so successful that David found it necessary to quit Jerusalem and flee to Mahanaim, beyond Jordan; where upon Absalom returned to Jerusalem and took possession of the throne without opposition. Ahithophel, who had been David's chief counsellor, deserted him and joined Absalom, whose chief counsellor he now became. Hushai also joined Absalom, but only for the purpose of trying to counteract the counsels of Ahithophel, and so to advantage David's cause. He was so far successful that by his advice, which was preferred to that of Ahithophel, Absalom delayed to march an army against his father, who thus gained time to prepare for the defence.

Absalom at length marched out against his father, whose army, under the command of Joab, he encountered on the borders of the forest of Ephraim. Twenty thousand of Absalom's army were slain in that fatal battle, and the rest fled. Absalom fled on a swift mule; but his long flowing hair, or more probably his head, was caught in the bough of an oak, and there he was left suspended till Joab came up and pierced him through with three darts. His body was then taken down and cast into a pit dug in the forest, and a heap of stones was raised over his grave. When the tidings of the result of that battle were brought to David, as he sat impatiently at the gate of Mahanaim, and he was told that Absalom had been slain, he gave way to the bitter lamentation: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" (2 Sam. 18:33. Comp. Ex. 32:32; Rom. 9:3).

Absalom's three sons (2 Sam. 14:27; comp. 18:18) had all died before him, so that he left only a daughter, Tamar, who became the grandmother of Abijah.

Acacia - (Heb. shittim) Ex. 25:5, R.V. probably the Acacia seyal (the gum-arabic tree); called the "shittah" tree (Isa. 41:19). Its wood is called shittim wood (Ex. 26:15,26; 25:10,13,23,28, etc.). This species (A. seyal) is like the hawthorn, a gnarled and thorny tree. It yields the gum-arabic of commerce. It is found in abundance in the Sinaitic peninsula.

Accad - the high land or mountains, a city in the land of Shinar. It has been identified with the mounds of Akker Kuf, some 50 miles to the north of Babylon; but this is doubtful. It was one of the cities of Nimrod's kingdom (Ge 10:10). It stood close to the Euphrates, opposite Sippara. (See SEPHARVAIM.)

It is also the name of the country of which this city was the capital, namely, northern or upper Babylonia. The Accadians who came from the "mountains of the east," where the ark rested, attained to a high degree of civilization. In the Babylonian inscriptions they are called "the black heads" and "the black faces," in contrast to "the white race" of Semitic descent. They invented the form of writing in pictorial hieroglyphics, and also the cuneiform system, in which they wrote many books partly on papyrus and partly on clay. The Semitic Babylonians ("the white race"), or, as some scholars think, first the Cushites, and afterwards, as a second immigration, the Semites, invaded and conquered this country; and then the Accadian language ceased to be a spoken language, although for the sake of its literary treasures it continued to be studied by the educated classes of Babylonia. A large portion of the Ninevite tablets brought to light by Oriental research consists of interlinear or parallel translations from Accadian into Assyrian; and thus that long-forgotten language has been recovered by scholars. It belongs to the class of languages called agglutinative, common to the Tauranian race; i.e., it consists of words "glued together," without declension of conjugation. These tablets in a remarkable manner illustrate ancient history. Among other notable records, they contain an account of the Creation which closely resembles that given in the book of Genesis, of the Sabbath as a day of rest, and of the Deluge and its cause. (See BABYLON ¯T0000409; CHALDEA.)

Accho - sultry or sandy, a town and harbour of Phoenicia, in the tribe of Asher, but never acquired by them (Judg. 1:31). It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans by the name of Ptolemais, from Ptolemy the king of Egypt, who rebuilt it about B.C. 100. Here Paul landed on his last journey to Jerusalem (Acts 21:7). During the crusades of the Middle Ages it was called Acra; and subsequently, on account of its being occupied by the Knights Hospitallers of Jerusalem, it was called St. Jean d'Acre, or simply Acre.

Accuser - Satan is styled the "accuser of the brethren" (Rev. 12:10. Comp. Job 1:6; Zech. 3:1), as seeking to uphold his influence among men by bringing false charges against Christians, with the view of weakening their influence and injuring the cause with which they are identified. He was regarded by the Jews as the accuser of men before God, laying to their charge the violations of the law of which they were guilty, and demanding their punishment. The same Greek word, rendered "accuser," is found in John 8:10 (but omitted in the Revised Version); Acts 23:30, 35; 24:8; 25:16, 18, in all of which places it is used of one who brings a charge against another.

Aceldama - the name which the Jews gave in their proper tongue, i.e., in Aramaic, to the field which was purchased with the money which had been given to the betrayer of our Lord. The word means "field of blood." It was previously called "the potter's field" (Matt. 27:7, 8; Acts 1:19), and was appropriated as the burial-place for strangers. It lies on a narrow level terrace on the south face of the valley of Hinnom. Its modern name is Hak ed-damm.

Achaia - the name originally of a narrow strip of territory in Greece, on the north-west of the Peloponnesus. Subsequently it was applied by the Romans to the whole Peloponnesus, now called the Morea, and the south of Greece. It was then one of the two provinces (Macedonia being the other) into which they divided the country when it fell under their dominion. It is in this latter enlarged meaning that the name is always used in the New Testament (Acts 18:12, 27; 19:21; Rom. 15: 26; 16:5, etc.). It was at the time when Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles under the proconsular form of government; hence the appropriate title given to Gallio as the "deputy," i.e., proconsul, of Achaia (Acts 18:12).

Achaichus - (1 Cor. 16:17), one of the members of the church of Corinth who, with Fortunatus and Stephanas, visited Paul while he was at Ephesus, for the purpose of consulting him on the affairs of the church. These three probably were the bearers of the letter from Corinth to the apostle to which he alludes in 1 Cor. 7:1.

Achan - called also Achar, i.e., one who troubles (1 Chr. 2:7), in commemoration of his crime, which brought upon him an awful destruction (Josh. 7:1). On the occasion of the fall of Jericho, he seized, contrary to the divine command, an ingot of gold, a quantity of silver, and a costly Babylonish garment, which he hid in his tent. Joshua was convinced that the defeat which the Israelites afterwards sustained before Ai was a proof of the divine displeasure on account of some crime, and he at once adopted means by the use of the lot for discovering the criminal. It was then found that Achan was guilty, and he was stoned to death in the valley of Achor. He and all that belonged to him were then consumed by fire, and a heap of stones was raised over the ashes.

Achbor - gnawing = mouse. (1.) An Edomitish king (Gen. 36:38; 1 Chr. 1:49).

(2.) One of Josiah's officers sent to the prophetess Huldah to inquire regarding the newly-discovered book of the law (2 Kings 22:12, 14). He is also called Abdon (2 Chr. 34:20).

Achish - angry, perhaps only a general title of royalty applicable to the Philistine kings. (1.) The king with whom David sought refuge when he fled from Saul (1 Sam. 21:10-15). He is called Abimelech in the superscription of Ps. 34. It was probably this same king to whom David a second time repaired at the head of a band of 600 warriors, and who assigned him Ziklag, whence he carried on war against the surrounding tribes (1 Sam. 27:5-12). Achish had great confidence in the valour and fidelity of David (1 Sam. 28:1,2), but at the instigation of his courtiers did not permit him to go up to battle along with the Philistine hosts (1 Sam. 29:2-11). David remained with Achish a year and four months. (2.) Another king of Gath, probably grandson of the foregoing, to whom the two servants of Shimei fled. This led Shimei to go to Gath in pursuit of them, and the consequence was that Solomon put him to death (1 Kings 2:39-46).

Achmetha - (Ezra 6:2), called Ecbatana by classical writers, the capital of northern Media. Here was the palace which was the residence of the old Median monarchs, and of Cyrus and Cambyses. In the time of Ezra, the Persian kings resided usually at Susa of Babylon. But Cyrus held his court at Achmetha; and Ezra, writing a century after, correctly mentions the place where the decree of Cyrus was found.

Achor - trouble, a valley near Jericho, so called in consequence of the trouble which the sin of Achan caused Israel (Josh. 7:24,26). The expression "valley of Achor" probably became proverbial for that which caused trouble, and when Isaiah (Isa. 65:10) refers to it he uses it in this sense: "The valley of Achor, a place for herds to lie down in;" i.e., that which had been a source of calamity would become a source of blessing. Hosea also (Hos. 2:15) uses the expression in the same sense: "The valley of Achor for a door of hope;" i.e., trouble would be turned into joy, despair into hope. This valley has been identified with the Wady Kelt.

Achsah - anklet, Caleb's only daughter (1 Chr. 2:49). She was offered in marriage to the man who would lead an attack on the city of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher. This was done by Othniel (q.v.), who accordingly obtained her as his wife (Josh. 15:16-19; Judg. 1:9-15).

Achshaph - fascination, a royal city of the Canaanites, in the north of Palestine (Josh. 11:1; 12:20; 19:25). It was in the eastern boundary of the tribe of Asher, and is identified with the modern ruined village of Kesaf or Yasif, N.E. of Accho.

Achzib - falsehood. (1.) A town in the Shephelah, or plain country of Judah (Josh. 15:44); probably the same as Chezib of Gen. 38:5 = Ain Kezbeh.

(2.) A Phoenician city (the Gr. Ecdippa), always retained in their possession though assigned to the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19:29; Judg. 1:31). It is identified with the modern es-Zib, on the Mediterranean, about 8 miles north of Accho.

Acre - is the translation of a word (tse'med), which properly means a yoke, and denotes a space of ground that may be ploughed by a yoke of oxen in a day. It is about an acre of our measure (Isa. 5:10; 1 Sam. 14:14).

Acts of the Apostles - the title now given to the fifth and last of the historical books of the New Testament. The author styles it a "treatise" (1:1). It was early called "The Acts," "The Gospel of the Holy Ghost," and "The Gospel of the Resurrection." It contains properly no account of any of the apostles except Peter and Paul. John is noticed only three times; and all that is recorded of James, the son of Zebedee, is his execution by Herod. It is properly therefore not the history of the "Acts of the Apostles," a title which was given to the book at a later date, but of "Acts of Apostles," or more correctly, of "Some Acts of Certain Apostles."

As regards its authorship, it was certainly the work of Luke, the "beloved physician" (comp. Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1). This is the uniform tradition of antiquity, although the writer nowhere makes mention of himself by name. The style and idiom of the Gospel of Luke and of the Acts, and the usage of words and phrases common to both, strengthen this opinion. The writer first appears in the narrative in 16:11, and then disappears till Paul's return to Philippi two years afterwards, when he and Paul left that place together (20:6), and the two seem henceforth to have been constant companions to the end. He was certainly with Paul at Rome (28; Col. 4:14). Thus he wrote a great portion of that history from personal observation. For what lay beyond his own experience he had the instruction of Paul. If, as is very probable, 2 Tim. was written during Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Luke was with him then as his faithful companion to the last (2 Tim. 4:11). Of his subsequent history we have no certain information.

The design of Luke's Gospel was to give an exhibition of the character and work of Christ as seen in his history till he was taken up from his disciples into heaven; and of the Acts, as its sequel, to give an illustration of the power and working of the gospel when preached among all nations, "beginning at Jerusalem." The opening sentences of the Acts are just an expansion and an explanation of the closing words of the Gospel. In this book we have just a continuation of the history of the church after Christ's ascension. Luke here carries on the history in the same spirit in which he had commenced it. It is only a book of beginnings, a history of the founding of churches, the initial steps in the formation of the Christian society in the different places visited by the apostles. It records a cycle of "representative events."

All through the narrative we see the ever-present, all-controlling power of the ever-living Saviour. He worketh all and in all in spreading abroad his truth among men by his Spirit and through the instrumentality of his apostles.

The time of the writing of this history may be gathered from the fact that the narrative extends down to the close of the second year of Paul's first imprisonment at Rome. It could not therefore have been written earlier than A.D. 61 or 62, nor later than about the end of A.D. 63. Paul was probably put to death during his second imprisonment, about A.D. 64, or, as some think, 66.

The place where the book was written was probably Rome, to which Luke accompanied Paul.

The key to the contents of the book is in 1:8, "Ye shall be witnesses unto me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth." After referring to what had been recorded in a "former treatise" of the sayings and doings of Jesus Christ before his ascension, the author proceeds to give an account of the circumstances connected with that event, and then records the leading facts with reference to the spread and triumphs of Christianity over the world during a period of about thirty years. The record begins with Pentecost (A.D. 33) and ends with Paul's first imprisonment (A.D. 63 or 64). The whole contents of the book may be divided into these three parts:

(1.) Chaps. 1-12, describing the first twelve years of the Christian church. This section has been entitled "From Jerusalem to Antioch." It contains the history of the planting and extension of the church among the Jews by the ministry of Peter.

(2.) Chaps. 13-21, Paul's missionary journeys, giving the history of the extension and planting of the church among the Gentiles.

(3.) Chaps. 21-28, Paul at Rome, and the events which led to this. Chaps. 13-28 have been entitled "From Antioch to Rome."

In this book it is worthy of note that no mention is made of the writing by Paul of any of his epistles. This may be accounted for by the fact that the writer confined himself to a history of the planting of the church, and not to that of its training or edification. The relation, however, between this history and the epistles of Paul is of such a kind, i.e., brings to light so many undesigned coincidences, as to prove the genuineness and authenticity of both, as is so ably shown by Paley in his Horae Paulinae. "No ancient work affords so many tests of veracity; for no other has such numerous points of contact in all directions with contemporary history, politics, and topography, whether Jewish, or Greek, or Roman." Lightfoot. (See PAUL.)

Adah - ornament. (1.) The first of Lamech's two wives, and the mother of Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 4:19, 20, 23).

(2.) The first of Esau's three wives, the daughter of Elon the Hittite (Gen. 36:2,4), called also Bashemath (26:34).

Adam - red, a Babylonian word, the generic name for man, having the same meaning in the Hebrew and the Assyrian languages. It was the name given to the first man, whose creation, fall, and subsequent history and that of his descendants are detailed in the first book of Moses (Gen. 1:27-ch. 5). "God created man [Heb., Adam] in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them."

Adam was absolutely the first man whom God created. He was formed out of the dust of the earth (and hence his name), and God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and gave him dominion over all the lower creatures (Gen. 1:26; 2:7). He was placed after his creation in the Garden of Eden, to cultivate it, and to enjoy its fruits under this one prohibition: "Of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil thou shalt not eat of it; for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die."

The first recorded act of Adam was his giving names to the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air, which God brought to him for this end. Thereafter the Lord caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and while in an unconscious state took one of his ribs, and closed up his flesh again; and of this rib he made a woman, whom he presented to him when he awoke. Adam received her as his wife, and said, "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." He called her Eve, because she was the mother of all living.

Being induced by the tempter in the form of a serpent to eat the forbidden fruit, Eve persuaded Adam, and he also did eat. Thus man fell, and brought upon himself and his posterity all the sad consequences of his transgression. The narrative of the Fall comprehends in it the great promise of a Deliverer (Gen. 3:15), the "first gospel" message to man. They were expelled from Eden, and at the east of the garden God placed a flame, which turned every way, to prevent access to the tree of life (Gen. 3). How long they were in Paradise is matter of mere conjecture.

Shortly after their expulsion Eve brought forth her first-born, and called him Cain. Although we have the names of only three of Adam's sons, viz., Cain, Abel, and Seth, yet it is obvious that he had several sons and daughters (Gen. 5:4). He died aged 930 years.

Adam and Eve were the progenitors of the whole human race. Evidences of varied kinds are abundant in proving the unity of the human race. The investigations of science, altogether independent of historical evidence, lead to the conclusion that God "hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth" (Acts 17:26. Comp. Rom. 5:12-12; 1 Cor. 15:22-49).

Adamah - red earth, a fortified city of Naphtali, probably the modern Damieh, on the west side of the sea of Tiberias (Josh. 19:33, 36).

Adamant - (Heb. shamir), Ezek. 3:9. The Greek word adamas means diamond. This stone is not referred to, but corundum or some kind of hard steel. It is an emblem of firmness in resisting adversaries of the truth (Zech. 7:12), and of hard-heartedness against the truth (Jer. 17:1).

Adam, a type - The apostle Paul speaks of Adam as "the figure of him who was to come." On this account our Lord is sometimes called the second Adam. This typical relation is described in Rom. 5:14-19.

Adam, the city of - is referred to in Josh. 3:16. It stood "beside Zarethan," on the west bank of Jordan (1 Kings 4:12). At this city the flow of the water was arrested and rose up "upon an heap" at the time of the Israelites' passing over (Josh. 3:16).

Adar - large, the sixth month of the civil and the twelfth of the ecclesiastical year of the Jews (Esther 3:7, 13; 8:12; 9:1, 15, 17, 19, 21). It included the days extending from the new moon of our March to the new moon of April. The name was first used after the Captivity. When the season was backward, and the lambs not yet of a paschal size, or the barley not forward enough for abib, then a month called Veadar, i.e., a second Adar, was intercalated.

Adbeel - miracle of God, the third of the twelve sons of Ishmael, and head of an Arabian tribe (Gen. 25:13; 1 Chr. 1:29).

Addar - ample, splendid, son of Bela (1 Chr. 8:3); called also "Ard" (Gen. 46:21)

Adder - (Ps. 140:3; Rom. 3:13, "asp") is the rendering of, (1.) Akshub ("coiling" or "lying in wait"), properly an asp or viper, found only in this passage. (2.) Pethen ("twisting"), a viper or venomous serpent identified with the cobra (Naja haje) (Ps. 58:4; 91:13); elsewhere "asp." (3.) Tziphoni ("hissing") (Prov. 23:32); elsewhere rendered "cockatrice," Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 8:17, as it is here in the margin of the Authorized Version. The Revised Version has "basilisk." This may have been the yellow viper, the Daboia xanthina, the largest and most dangerous of the vipers of Palestine. (4.) Shephiphon ("creeping"), occurring only in Gen. 49:17, the small speckled venomous snake, the "horned snake," or cerastes. Dan is compared to this serpent, which springs from its hiding-place on the passer-by.

Addi - ornament, (Luke 3:28), the son of Cosam, and father of Melchi, one of the progenitors of Christ.

Addon - low, one of the persons named in Neh. 7:61 who could not "shew their father's house" on the return from captivity. This, with similar instances (ver. 63), indicates the importance the Jews attached to their genealogies.

Adiel - ornament of God. (1.) The father of Azmaveth, who was treasurer under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:25). (2.) A family head of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:36). (3.) A priest (1 Chr. 9:12).

Adin - effeminate. (1.) Ezra 8:6. (2.) Neh. 10:16.

Adina - slender, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:42), a Reubenite.

Adino - the Eznite, one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23:8). (See JASHOBEAM.)

Adjuration - a solemn appeal whereby one person imposes on another the obligation of speaking or acting as if under an oath (1 Sam. 14:24; Josh. 6:26; 1 Kings 22:16).

We have in the New Testament a striking example of this (Matt. 26:63; Mark 5:7), where the high priest calls upon Christ to avow his true character. It would seem that in such a case the person so adjured could not refuse to give an answer.

The word "adjure", i.e., cause to swear is used with reference to the casting out of demons (Acts 19:13).

Admah - earth, one of the five cities of the vale of Siddim (Gen. 10:19). It was destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah (19:24; Deut. 29:23). It is supposed by some to be the same as the Adam of Josh. 3:16, the name of which still lingers in Damieh, the ford of Jordan. (See ZEBOIM.)

Adnah - delight. (1.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:20). (2.) A general under Jehoshaphat, chief over 300,000 men (2 Chr. 17:14).

Adonibezek - lord of Bezek, a Canaanitish king who, having subdued seventy of the chiefs that were around him, made an attack against the armies of Judah and Simeon, but was defeated and brought as a captive to Jerusalem, where his thumbs and great toes were cut off. He confessed that God had requited him for his like cruelty to the seventy kings whom he had subdued (Judg. 1:4-7; comp. 1 Sam. 15:33).

Adonijah - my Lord is Jehovah. (1.) The fourth son of David (2 Sam. 3:4). After the death of his elder brothers, Amnon and Absalom, he became heir-apparent to the throne. But Solomon, a younger brother, was preferred to him. Adonijah, however, when his father was dying, caused himself to be proclaimed king. But Nathan and Bathsheba induced David to give orders that Solomon should at once be proclaimed and admitted to the throne. Adonijah fled and took refuge at the altar, and received pardon for his conduct from Solomon on the condition that he showed himself "a worthy man" (1 Kings 1:5-53). He afterwards made a second attempt to gain the throne, but was seized and put to death (1 Kings 2:13-25).

(2.) A Levite sent with the princes to teach the book of the law to the inhabitants of Judah (2 Chr. 17:8).

(3.) One of the "chiefs of the people" after the Captivity (Neh. 10:16).

Adonikam - whom the Lord sets up, one of those "which came with Zerubbabel" (Ezra 2:13). His "children," or retainers, to the number of 666, came up to Jerusalem (8:13).

Adoniram - (Adoram, 1 Kings 12:18), the son of Abda, was "over the tribute," i.e., the levy or forced labour. He was stoned to death by the people of Israel (1 Kings 4:6; 5:14)

Adoni-zedec - lord of justice or righteousness, was king in Jerusalem at the time when the Israelites invaded Palestine (Josh. 10:1,3). He formed a confederacy with the other Canaanitish kings against the Israelites, but was utterly routed by Joshua when he was engaged in besieging the Gibeonites. The history of this victory and of the treatment of the five confederated kings is recorded in Josh. 10:1-27. (Comp. Deut. 21:23). Among the Tell Amarna tablets (see EGYPT ¯T0001137) are some very interesting letters from Adoni-zedec to the King of Egypt.

These illustrate in a very remarkable manner the history recorded in Josh. 10, and indeed throw light on the wars of conquest generally, so that they may be read as a kind of commentary on the book of Joshua. Here the conquering career of the Abiri (i.e., Hebrews) is graphically described: "Behold, I say that the land of the king my lord is ruined", "The wars are mighty against me", "The Hebrew chiefs plunder all the king's lands", "Behold, I the chief of the Amorites am breaking to pieces." Then he implores the king of Egypt to send soldiers to help him, directing that the army should come by sea to Ascalon or Gaza, and thence march to Wru-sa-lim (Jerusalem) by the valley of Elah.

Adoption - the giving to any one the name and place and privileges of a son who is not a son by birth.

(1.) Natural. Thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses (Ex. 2:10), and Mordecai Esther (Esther 2:7).

(2.) National. God adopted Israel (Ex. 4:22; Deut. 7:6; Hos. 11:1; Rom. 9:4).

(3.) Spiritual. An act of God's grace by which he brings men into the number of his redeemed family, and makes them partakers of all the blessings he has provided for them. Adoption represents the new relations into which the believer is introduced by justification, and the privileges connected therewith, viz., an interest in God's peculiar love (John 17:23; Rom. 5:5-8), a spiritual nature (2 Pet. 1:4; John 1:13), the possession of a spirit becoming children of God (1 Pet. 1:14; 2 John 4; Rom. 8:15-21; Gal. 5:1; Heb. 2:15), present protection, consolation, supplies (Luke 12:27-32; John 14:18; 1 Cor. 3:21-23; 2 Cor. 1:4), fatherly chastisements (Heb. 12:5-11), and a future glorious inheritance (Rom. 8:17,23; James 2:5; Phil. 3:21).

Adoram - See ADONIRAM.

Adore - to worship; to express reverence and homage. The forms of adoration among the Jews were putting off the shoes (Ex. 3:5; Josh. 5:15), and prostration (Gen. 17:3; Ps. 95:6; Isa. 44:15, 17, 19; 46:6). To "kiss the Son" in Ps. 2:12 is to adore and worship him. (See Dan. 3:5, 6.) The word itself does not occur in Scripture.

Adrammelech - Adar the king. (1.) An idol; a form of the sun-god worshipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17:31), and brought by the Sepharvite colonists into Samaria. (2.) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38).

Adramyttium - a city of Asia Minor on the coast of Mysia, which in early times was called AEolis. The ship in which Paul embarked at Caesarea belonged to this city (Acts 27:2). He was conveyed in it only to Myra, in Lycia, whence he sailed in an Alexandrian ship to Italy. It was a rare thing for a ship to sail from any port of Palestine direct for Italy. It still bears the name Adramyti, and is a place of some traffic.

Adria - (Acts 27:27; R.V., "the sea of Adria"), the Adriatic Sea, including in Paul's time the whole of the Mediterranean lying between Crete and Sicily. It is the modern Gulf of Venice, the Mare Superum_ of the Romans, as distinguished from the Mare Inferum_ or Tyrrhenian Sea.

Adriel - flock of God, the son of Barzillai, the Meholathite, to whom Saul gave in marriage his daughter Merab (1 Sam. 18:19). The five sons that sprang from this union were put to death by the Gibeonites (2 Sam. 21:8, 9. Here it is said that Michal "brought up" [R.V., "bare"] these five sons, either that she treated them as if she had been their own mother, or that for "Michal" we should read "Merab," as in 1 Sam. 18:19).

Adullam - one of the royal cities of the Canaanites, now 'Aid-el-ma (Josh. 12:15; 15:35). It stood on the old Roman road in the valley of Elah (q.v.), which was the scene of David's memorable victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 17:2), and not far from Gath. It was one of the towns which Rehoboam fortified against Egypt (2 Chr. 11:7). It was called "the glory of Israel" (Micah 1:15).

The Cave of Adullam has been discovered about 2 miles south of the scene of David's triumph, and about 13 miles west from Bethlehem. At this place is a hill some 500 feet high pierced with numerous caverns, in one of which David gathered together "every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented" (1 Sam. 22:2). Some of these caverns are large enough to hold 200 or 300 men. According to tradition this cave was at Wady Khureitun, between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, but this view cannot be well maintained.

Adullamite - an inhabitant of the city of Adullam (Gen. 38:1, 12, 20).

Adultery - conjugal infidelity. An adulterer was a man who had illicit intercourse with a married or a betrothed woman, and such a woman was an adulteress. Intercourse between a married man and an unmarried woman was fornication. Adultery was regarded as a great social wrong, as well as a great sin.

The Mosaic law (Num. 5:11-31) prescribed that the suspected wife should be tried by the ordeal of the "water of jealousy." There is, however, no recorded instance of the application of this law. In subsequent times the Rabbis made various regulations with the view of discovering the guilty party, and of bringing about a divorce. It has been inferred from John 8:1-11 that this sin became very common during the age preceding the destruction of Jerusalem.

Idolatry, covetousness, and apostasy are spoken of as adultery spiritually (Jer. 3:6, 8, 9; Ezek. 16:32; Hos. 1:2:3; Rev. 2:22). An apostate church is an adulteress (Isa. 1:21; Ezek. 23:4, 7, 37), and the Jews are styled "an adulterous generation" (Matt. 12:39). (Comp. Rev. 12.)

Adummim - the red ones, a place apparently on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem, "on the south side of the torrent" Wady Kelt, looking toward Gilgal, mentioned Josh. 15:7; 18:17. It was nearly half-way between Jerusalem and Jericho, and now bears the name of Tal-at-ed-Dumm. It is supposed to have been the place referred to in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37). Recently a new carriage-road has been completed, and carriages for the first time have come along this road from Jerusalem.

Adversary - (Heb. satan), an opponent or foe (1 Kings 5:4; 11:14, 23, 25; Luke 13:17); one that speaks against another, a complainant (Matt. 5:25; Luke 12:58); an enemy (Luke 18:3), and specially the devil (1 Pet. 5:8).

Advocate - (Gr. parakletos), one who pleads another's cause, who helps another by defending or comforting him. It is a name given by Christ three times to the Holy Ghost (John 14:16; 15:26; 16:7, where the Greek word is rendered "Comforter," q.v.). It is applied to Christ in 1 John 2:1, where the same Greek word is rendered "Advocate," the rendering which it should have in all the places where it occurs. Tertullus "the orator" (Acts 24:1) was a Roman advocate whom the Jews employed to accuse Paul before Felix.

AEnon - springs, a place near Salim where John baptized (John 3:23). It was probably near the upper source of the Wady Far'ah, an open valley extending from Mount Ebal to the Jordan. It is full of springs. A place has been found called 'Ainun, four miles north of the springs.

Affection - feeling or emotion. Mention is made of "vile affections" (Rom. 1:26) and "inordinate affection" (Col. 3:5). Christians are exhorted to set their affections on things above (Col. 3:2). There is a distinction between natural and spiritual or gracious affections (Ezek. 33:32).

Affinity - relationship by alliance (2 Chr. 18:1) or by marriage (1 Kings 3:1). Marriages are prohibited within certain degrees of affinity, enumerated Lev. 18:6-17. Consanguinity is relationship by blood.

Afflictions - common to all (Job 5:7; 14:1; Ps. 34:19); are for the good of men (James 1:2, 3, 12; 2 Cor. 12:7) and the glory of God (2 Cor. 12:7-10; 1 Pet. 4:14), and are to be borne with patience by the Lord's people (Ps. 94:12; Prov. 3:12). They are all directed by God (Lam. 3:33), and will result in the everlasting good of his people (2 Cor. 4:16-18) in Christ Jesus (Rom. 8:35-39).

Agabus - a "prophet," probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He prophesied at Antioch of an approaching famine (Acts 11:27, 28). Many years afterwards he met Paul at Caesarea, and warned him of the bonds and affliction that awaited him at Jerusalem should he persist in going thither (Acts 21:10-12).

Agag - flame, the usual title of the Amalekite kings, as "Pharaoh" was of the Egyptian. (1.) A king of the Amalekites referred to by Balaam (Num. 24:7). He lived at the time of the Exodus.

(2.) Another king of the Amalekites whom Saul spared unlawfully, but whom Samuel on his arrival in the camp of Saul ordered, in retributive justice (Judg. 1), to be brought out and cut in pieces (1 Sam. 15:8-33. Comp. Ex. 17:11; Num. 14:45).

Agagite - a name applied to Haman and also to his father (Esther 3:1, 10; 8:3, 5). Probably it was equivalent to Amalekite.

Agate - (Heb. shebo), a precious stone in the breast-plate of the high priest (Ex. 28:19; 39:12), the second in the third row. This may be the agate properly so called, a semi-transparent crystallized quartz, probably brought from Sheba, whence its name. In Isa. 54:12 and Ezek. 27:16, this word is the rendering of the Hebrew cadcod, which means "ruddy," and denotes a variety of minutely crystalline silica more or less in bands of different tints.

This word is from the Greek name of a stone found in the river Achates in Sicily.

Age - used to denote the period of a man's life (Gen. 47:28), the maturity of life (John 9:21), the latter end of life (Job 11:17), a generation of the human race (Job 8:8), and an indefinite period (Eph. 2:7; 3:5, 21; Col. 1:26). Respect to be shown to the aged (Lev. 19:32). It is a blessing to communities when they have old men among them (Isa. 65:20; Zech. 8:4). The aged supposed to excel in understanding (Job 12:20; 15:10; 32:4, 9; 1 Kings 12:6, 8). A full age the reward of piety (Job 5:26; Gen. 15:15).

Agee - fugitive, the father of Shammah, who was one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23:11)

Agony - contest; wrestling; severe struggling with pain and suffering. Anguish is the reflection on evil that is already past, while agony is a struggle with evil at the time present. It is only used in the New Testament by Luke (22:44) to describe our Lord's fearful struggle in Gethsemane.

The verb from which the noun "agony" is derived is used to denote an earnest endeavour or striving, as "Strive [agonize] to enter" (Luke 13:24); "Then would my servants fight" [agonize] (John 18:36). Comp. 1 Cor. 9:25; Col. 1:29; 4:12; 1 Tim. 6:12; 2 Tim. 4:7, where the words "striveth," "labour," "conflict," "fight," are the renderings of the same Greek verb.

Agriculture - Tilling the ground (Gen. 2:15; 4:2, 3, 12) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. And after the Israelites entered into the possession of the Promised Land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. Agriculture became indeed the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth.

The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods:-

I. SOWING TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn.

II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half.

III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. Latter rain due (Deut. 11:14; Jer. 5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23).

IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost.

V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half.

VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., Ingathering of fruits.

The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive (Ps. 1:3; 65:10; Prov. 21:1; Isa. 30:25; 32:2, 20; Hos. 12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population, "20,000 measures of wheat year by year" were sent to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11), and in large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the merchandise in which they traded (Ezek. 27:17). The wheat sometimes produced an hundredfold (Gen. 26:12; Matt. 13:23). Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful (Num. 13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and produced abundant fruit (Deut. 33:24).

Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease (Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-10).

It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (Deut. 22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any (Deut. 23:24, 25; Matt. 12:1). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19.)

Agricultural implements and operations.

The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses (Deut. 22:10; comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and required great attention to keep them in the ground (Luke 9:62). They were drawn by oxen (Job 1:14), cows (1 Sam. 6:7), and asses (Isa. 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough (Deut. 22:10). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (Isa. 28:24). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also (Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21).

When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field (Matt. 13:3-8). The "harrow" mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Isa. 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field.

The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves (Gen. 37:7; Lev. 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, 15; Job 24:10; Jer. 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (Matt. 6:26).

The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (Deut. 25:4; Isa. 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used for this purpose (Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27). There was also a "threshing instrument" (Isa. 41:15; Amos 1:3) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr. 21:23; Isa. 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument.

When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind (Jer. 4:11), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops (Isa. 30:24). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in Ps. 35:5, Job 21:18, Isa. 17:13. The refuse of straw and chaff was burned (Isa. 5:24). Freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used (Deut. 28:8; Prov. 3:10; Matt. 6:26; 13:30; Luke 12:18).

Agrippa I. - the grandson of Herod the Great, and son of Aristobulus and Bernice. The Roman emperor Caligula made him governor first of the territories of Philip, then of the tetrarchy of Lysanias, with the title of king ("king Herod"), and finally of that of Antipas, who was banished, and of Samaria and Judea. Thus he became ruler over the whole of Palestine. He was a persecutor of the early Christians. He slew James, and imprisoned Peter (Acts 12:1-4). He died at Caesarea, being "eaten of worms" (Acts 12:23), A.D. 44. (Comp. Josephus, Ant. xix. 8.)

Agrippa II. - son of the foregoing, was born at Rome, A.D. 27. He was the brother of Bernice and Drusilla. The Emperor Claudius (A.D. 48) invested him with the office of superintendent of the Temple of Jerusalem, and made him governor (A.D. 50) of Chalcis. He was afterwards raised to the rank of king, and made governor over the tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanias (Acts 25:13; 26:2, 7). It was before him that Paul delivered (A.D. 59) his speech recorded in Acts 26. His private life was very profligate. He died (the last of his race) at Rome, at the age of about seventy years, A.D. 100.

Ague - the translation in Lev. 26:16 (R.V., "fever") of the Hebrew word kaddah'ath, meaning "kindling", i.e., an inflammatory or burning fever. In Deut. 28:22 the word is rendered "fever."

Agur - gatherer; the collector, mentioned as author of the sayings in Prov. 30. Nothing is known of him beyond what is there recorded.

Ah! - an exclamation of sorrow or regret (Ps. 35:25; Isa. 1:4, 24; Jer. 1:6; 22:18; Mark 15:29).

Aha! - an exclamation of ridicule (Ps. 35:21; 40:15; 70:3). In Isa. 44:16 it signifies joyful surprise, as also in Job 39:25, R.V.

Ahab - father's brother. (1.) The son of Omri, whom he succeeded as the seventh king of Israel. His history is recorded in 1 Kings 16-22. His wife was Jezebel (q.v.), who exercised a very evil influence over him. To the calf-worship introduced by Jeroboam he added the worship of Baal. He was severely admonished by Elijah (q.v.) for his wickedness. His anger was on this account kindled against the prophet, and he sought to kill him. He undertook three campaigns against Ben-hadad II., king of Damascus. In the first two, which were defensive, he gained a complete victory over Ben-hadad, who fell into his hands, and was afterwards released on the condition of his restoring all the cities of Israel he then held, and granting certain other concessions to Ahab. After three years of peace, for some cause Ahab renewed war (1 Kings 22:3) with Ben-hadad by assaulting the city of Ramoth-gilead, although the prophet Micaiah warned him that he would not succeed, and that the 400 false prophets who encouraged him were only leading him to his ruin. Micaiah was imprisoned for thus venturing to dissuade Ahab from his purpose. Ahab went into the battle disguised, that he might if possible escape the notice of his enemies; but an arrow from a bow "drawn at a venture" pierced him, and though stayed up in his chariot for a time he died towards evening, and Elijah's prophecy (1 Kings 21:19) was fulfilled. He reigned twenty-three years. Because of his idolatry, lust, and covetousness, Ahab is referred to as pre-eminently the type of a wicked king (2 Kings 8:18; 2 Chr. 22:3; Micah 6:16).

(2.) A false prophet referred to by Jeremiah (Jer. 29:21), of whom nothing further is known.

Ahasuerus - There are three kings designated by this name in Scripture. (1.) The father of Darius the Mede, mentioned in Dan. 9:1. This was probably the Cyaxares I. known by this name in profane history, the king of Media and the conqueror of Nineveh.

(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 4:6, probably the Cambyses of profane history, the son and successor of Cyrus (B.C. 529).

(3.) The son of Darius Hystaspes, the king named in the Book of Esther. He ruled over the kingdoms of Persia, Media, and Babylonia, "from India to Ethiopia." This was in all probability the Xerxes of profane history, who succeeded his father Darius (B.C. 485). In the LXX. version of the Book of Esther the name Artaxerxes occurs for Ahasuerus. He reigned for twenty-one years (B.C. 486-465). He invaded Greece with an army, it is said, of more than 2,000,000 soldiers, only 5,000 of whom returned with him. Leonidas, with his famous 300, arrested his progress at the Pass of Thermopylae, and then he was defeated disastrously by Themistocles at Salamis. It was after his return from this invasion that Esther was chosen as his queen.

Ahava - water, the river (Ezra 8:21) by the banks of which the Jewish exiles assembled under Ezra when about to return to Jerusalem from Babylon. In all probability this was one of the streams of Mesopotamia which flowed into the Euphrates somewhere in the north-west of Babylonia. It has, however, been supposed to be the name of a place (Ezra 8:15) now called Hit, on the Euphrates, east of Damascus.

Ahaz - possessor. (1.) A grandson of Jonathan (1 Chr. 8:35; 9:42).

(2.) The son and successor of Jotham, king of Judah (2 Kings 16; Isa. 7-9; 2 Chr. 28). He gave himself up to a life of wickedness and idolatry. Notwithstanding the remonstrances and warnings of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah, he appealed for help against Rezin, king of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, who threatened Jerusalem, to Tiglath-pileser, the king of Assyria, to the great injury of his kingdom and his own humilating subjection to the Assyrians (2 Kings 16:7, 9; 15:29). He also introduced among his people many heathen and idolatrous customs (Isa. 8:19; 38:8; 2 Kings 23:12). He died at the age of thirty-five years, after reigning sixteen years (B.C. 740-724), and was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. Because of his wickedness he was "not brought into the sepulchre of the kings."

Ahaziah - held by Jehovah. (1.) The son and successor of Ahab. He followed the counsels of his mother Jezebel, and imitated in wickedness the ways of his father. In his reign the Moabites revolted from under his authority (2 Kings 3:5-7). He united with Jehoshaphat in an attempt to revive maritime trade by the Red Sea, which proved a failure (2 Chr. 20:35-37). His messengers, sent to consult the god of Ekron regarding his recovery from the effects of a fall from the roof-gallery of his palace, were met on the way by Elijah, who sent them back to tell the king that he would never rise from his bed (1 Kings 22:51; 2 Kings 1:18).

(2.) The son of Joram, or Jehoram, and sixth king of Judah. Called Jehoahaz (2 Chr. 21:17; 25:23), and Azariah (2 Chr. 22:6). Guided by his idolatrous mother Athaliah, his reign was disastrous (2 Kings 8:24-29; 9:29). He joined his uncle Jehoram, king of Israel, in an expedition against Hazael, king of Damascus; but was wounded at the pass of Gur when attempting to escape, and had strength only to reach Megiddo, where he died (2 Kings 9:22-28). He reigned only one year.

Ahiam - mother's brother, one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23:33; 1 Chr. 11:35).

Ahiezer - brother of help; i.e., "helpful." (1.) The chief of the tribe of Dan at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:12; 2:25; 10:25).

(2.) The chief of the Benjamite slingers that repaired to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3).

Ahihud - brother (i.e., "friend") of union. (1.) A son of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:7).

(2.) Name different in Hebrew, meaning brother of Judah. Chief of the tribe of Asher; one of those appointed by Moses to superintend the division of Canaan among the tribe (Num. 34:27).

Ahijah - brother (i.e., "friend") of Jehovah. (1.) One of the sons of Bela (1 Chr. 8:7, R.V.). In A.V. called "Ahiah."

(2.) One of the five sons of Jerahmeel, who was great-grandson of Judah (1 Chr. 2:25).

(3.) Son of Ahitub (1 Sam. 14:3, 18), Ichabod's brother; the same probably as Ahimelech, who was high priest at Nob in the reign of Saul (1 Sam. 22:11). Some, however, suppose that Ahimelech was the brother of Ahijah, and that they both officiated as high priests, Ahijah at Gibeah or Kirjath-jearim, and Ahimelech at Nob.

(4.) A Pelonite, one of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:36); called also Eliam (2 Sam. 23:34).

(5.) A Levite having charge of the sacred treasury in the temple (1 Chr. 26:20).

(6.) One of Solomon's secretaries (1 Kings 4:3).

(7.) A prophet of Shiloh (1 Kings 11:29; 14:2), called the "Shilonite," in the days of Rehoboam. We have on record two of his remarkable prophecies, 1 Kings 11:31-39, announcing the rending of the ten tribes from Solomon; and 1 Kings 14:6-16, delivered to Jeroboam's wife, foretelling the death of Abijah the king's son, the destruction of Jeroboam's house, and the captivity of Israel "beyond the river." Jeroboam bears testimony to the high esteem in which he was held as a prophet of God (1 Kings 14:2,3).

Ahikam - brother of support = helper, one of the five whom Josiah sent to consult the prophetess Huldah in connection with the discovery of the book of the law (2 Kings 22:12-14; 2 Chr. 34:20). He was the son of Shaphan, the royal secretary, and the father of Gedaliah, governor of Judea after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25:22; Jer. 40:5-16; 43:6). On one occasion he protected Jeremiah against the fury of Jehoiakim (Jer. 26:24). It was in the chamber of another son (Germariah) of Shaphan that Baruch read in the ears of all the people Jeremiah's roll.

Ahimaaz - brother of anger = irascible. (1.) The father Ahinoam, the wife of Saul (1 Sam. 14:50).

(2.) The son and successor of Zadok in the office of high priest (1 Chr. 6:8, 53). On the occasion of the revolt of Absalom he remained faithful to David, and was of service to him in conveying to him tidings of the proceedings of Absalom in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24-37; 17:15-21). He was swift of foot, and was the first to carry to David tidings of the defeat of Absalom, although he refrained, from delicacy of feeling, from telling him of his death (2 Sam. 18:19-33).

Ahiman - brother of a gift = liberal. (1.) One of the three giant Anakim brothers whom Caleb and the spies saw in Mount Hebron (Num. 13:22) when they went in to explore the land. They were afterwards driven out and slain (Josh. 15:14; Judg. 1:10).

(2.) One of the guardians of the temple after the Exile (1 Chr. 9:17).

Ahimelech - brother of the king, the son of Ahitub and father of Abiathar (1 Sam. 22:20-23). He descended from Eli in the line of Ithamar. In 1 Chr. 18:16 he is called Abimelech, and is probably the same as Ahiah (1 Sam. 14:3, 18). He was the twelfth high priest, and officiated at Nob, where he was visited by David (to whom and his companions he gave five loaves of the showbread) when he fled from Saul (1 Sam. 21:1-9). He was summoned into Saul's presence, and accused, on the information of Doeg the Edomite, of disloyalty because of his kindness to David; whereupon the king commanded that he, with the other priests who stood beside him (86 in all), should be put to death. This sentence was carried into execution by Doeg in the most cruel manner (1 Sam. 22:9-23). Possibly Abiathar had a son also called Ahimelech, or the two names, as some think, may have been accidentally transposed in 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 18:16, marg.; 24:3, 6, 31.

Ahinadab - brother of liberality = liberal, one of the twelve commissariat officers appointed by Solomon in so many districts of his kingdom to raise supplies by monthly rotation for his household. He was appointed to the district of Mahanaim (1 Kings 4:14), east of Jordan.

Ahinoam - brother of pleasantness = pleasant. (1.) The daughter of Ahimaaz, and wife of Saul (1 Sam. 14:50).

(2.) A Jezreelitess, the first wife of David (1 Sam. 25:43; 27:3). She was the mother of Amnon (2 Sam. 3:2). (See 1 Sam. 30:5, 18; 2 Sam. 2:2.)

Ahio - brotherly. (1.) One of the sons of Beriah (1 Chr. 8:14).

(2.) One of the sons of Jehiel the Gibeonite (1 Chr. 8:31; 9:37).

(3.) One of the sons of Abinadab the Levite. While Uzzah went by the side of the ark, he walked before it guiding the oxen which drew the cart on which it was carried, after having brought it from his father's house in Gibeah (1 Chr. 13:7; 2 Sam. 6:3, 4).

Ahira - brother of evil = unlucky, or my brother is friend, chief of the tribe of Naphtali at the Exodus (Num. 1:15; 2:29).

Ahishar - brother of song = singer, the officer who was "over the household" of Solomon (1 Kings 4:6).

Ahithophel - brother of insipidity or impiety, a man greatly renowned for his sagacity among the Jews. At the time of Absalom's revolt he deserted David (Ps. 41:9; 55:12-14) and espoused the cause of Absalom (2 Sam. 15:12). David sent his old friend Hushai back to Absalom, in order that he might counteract the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15:31-37). This end was so far gained that Ahithophel saw he had no longer any influence, and accordingly he at once left the camp of Absalom and returned to Giloh, his native place, where, after arranging his wordly affairs, he hanged himself, and was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers (2 Sam. 17:1-23). He was the type of Judas (Ps. 41:9).

Ahitub - brother of goodness = good. (1.) The son of Phinehas. On the death of his grandfather Eli he succeeded to the office of high priest, and was himself succeeded by his son Ahijah (1 Sam. 14:3; 22:9, 11, 12, 20).

(2.) The father of Zadok, who was made high priest by Saul after the extermination of the family of Ahimelech (1 Chr. 6:7, 8; 2 Sam. 8:17).

Ahlab - fatness, a town of Asher lying within the unconquered Phoenician border (Judg. 1:31), north-west of the Sea of Galilee; commonly identified with Giscala, now el-Jish.

Ahoah - brotherly, one of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:4). He is also called Ahiah (ver. 7) and Iri (1 Chr. 7:7). His descendants were called Ahohites (2 Sam. 23:9, 28).

Ahohite - an epithet applied to Dodo, one of Solomon's captains (1 Chr. 27:4); to his son Eleazar, one of David's three mightiest heroes (2 Sam. 23:9; 1 Chr. 11:12); and to Zalmon, one of the thirty (2 Sam. 23:28; 1 Chr. 11:29), from their descent from Ahoah.

Aholah - she has her own tent, a name used by Ezekiel (23:4, 5, 36, 44) as a symbol of the idolatry of the kingdom of Israel. This kingdom is described as a lewdwoman, an adulteress, given up to the abominations and idolatries of the Egyptians and Assyrians. Because of her crimes, she was carried away captive, and ceased to be a kingdom. (Comp. Ps. 78:67-69; 1 Kings 12:25-33; 2 Chr. 11:13-16.)

Aholiab - tent of the father, an artist of the tribe of Dan, appointed to the work of preparing materials for the tabernacle (Ex. 31:6; 35:34; 36:1, 2; 38:23).

Aholibah - my tent is in her, the name of an imaginary harlot, applied symbolically to Jerusalem, because she had abandoned the worship of the true God and given herself up to the idolatries of foreign nations. (Ezek. 23:4, 11, 22, 36, 44).

Aholibamah - tent of the height, the name given to Judith, the daughter of Beeri = Anah (Gen. 26:34; 36:2), when she became the wife of Esau. A district among the mountains of Edom, probably near Mount Hor, was called after her name, or it may be that she received her name from the district. From her descended three tribes of Edomites, founded by her three sons.

Ai - ruins. (1.) One of the royal cities of the Canaanites (Josh. 10:1; Gen. 12:8; 13:3). It was the scene of Joshua's defeat, and afterwards of his victory. It was the second Canaanite city taken by Israel (Josh. 7:2-5; 8:1-29). It lay rebuilt and inhibited by the Benjamites (Ezra 2:28; Neh. 7:32; 11:31). It lay to the east of Bethel, "beside Beth-aven." The spot which is most probably the site of this ancient city is Haiyan, 2 miles east from Bethel. It lay up the Wady Suweinit, a steep, rugged valley, extending from the Jordan valley to Bethel.

(2.) A city in the Ammonite territory (Jer. 49:3). Some have thought that the proper reading of the word is Ar (Isa. 15:1).

Aijeleth Shahar - hind of the dawn, a name found in the title of Ps. 22. It is probably the name of some song or tune to the measure of which the psalm was to be chanted. Some, however, understand by the name some instrument of music, or an allegorical allusion to the subject of the psalm.

Air - the atmosphere, as opposed to the higher regions of the sky (1 Thess. 4:17; Rev. 9:2; 16:17). This word occurs once as the rendering of the Hebrew ruah (Job 41:16); elsewhere it is the rendering of shamaiyim, usually translated "heavens."

The expression "to speak into the air" (1 Cor. 14:9) is a proverb denoting to speak in vain, as to "beat the air" (1 Cor. 9:26) denotes to labour in vain.

Ajalon - and Aij'alon, place of deer. (1.) A town and valley originally assigned to the tribe of Dan, from which, however, they could not drive the Amorites (Judg. 1:35). It was one of the Levitical cities given to the Kohathites (1 Chr. 6:69). It was not far from Beth-shemesh (2 Chr. 28:18). It was the boundary between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and is frequently mentioned in Jewish history (2 Chr. 11:10; 1 Sam. 14:31; 1 Chr. 8:13). With reference to the valley named after the town, Joshua uttered the celebrated command, "Sun, stand thou still on Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon" (Josh. 10:12). It has been identified as the modern Yalo, at the foot of the Beth-horon pass (q.v.). In the Tell Amarna letters Adoni-zedek (q.v.) speaks of the destruction of the "city of Ajalon" by the invaders, and describes himself as "afflicted, greatly afflicted" by the calamities that had come on the land, urging the king of Egypt to hasten to his help.

(2.) A city in the tribe of Zebulun (Judg. 12:12), the modern Jalun, three miles north of Cabul.

Akkub - (another form of Jacob). (1.) The head of one of the families of Nethinim (Ezra 2:45).

(2.) A Levite who kept the gate of the temple after the return from Babylon (1 Chr. 9:17; Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45).

(3.) A descendant of David (1 Chr. 3:24).

Akrabbim - scorpions, probably the general name given to the ridge containing the pass between the south of the Dead Sea and Zin, es-Sufah, by which there is an ascent to the level of the land of Palestine. Scorpions are said to abound in this whole district, and hence the name (Num. 34:4). It is called "Maaleh-acrabbim" in Josh. 15:3, and "the ascent of Akrabbim" in Num. 34:4.

Alabaster - occurs only in the New Testament in connection with the box of "ointment of spikenard very precious," with the contents of which a woman anointed the head of Jesus as he sat at supper in the house of Simon the leper (Matt. 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37). These boxes were made from a stone found near Alabastron in Egypt, and from this circumstance the Greeks gave them the name of the city where they were made. The name was then given to the stone of which they were made; and finally to all perfume vessels, of whatever material they were formed. The woman "broke" the vessel; i.e., she broke off, as was usually done, the long and narrow neck so as to reach the contents. This stone resembles marble, but is softer in its texture, and hence very easily wrought into boxes. Mark says (14:5) that this box of ointment was worth more than 300 pence, i.e., denarii, each of the value of sevenpence halfpenny of our money, and therefore worth about 10 pounds. But if we take the denarius as the day's wage of a labourer (Matt. 20:2), say two shillings of our money, then the whole would be worth about 30 pounds, so costly was Mary's offering.

Alamoth - virgins, a musical term (1 Chr. 15:20), denoting that the psalm which bears this inscription (Ps. 46) was to be sung by soprano or female voices.

Alarm - a particular quivering sound of the silver trumpets to give warning to the Hebrews on their journey through the wilderness (Num. 10:5, 6), a call to arms, or a war-note (Jer. 4:19; 49:2; Zeph. 1:16).

Alemeth - covering. (1.) One of the nine sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8).

(2.) One of the sons of Jehoadah, or Jarah, son of Ahaz (1 Chr. 8:36).

(3.) A sacerdotal city of Benjamin (1 Chr. 6:60), called also Almon (Josh. 21:18), now Almit, a mile north-east of the ancient Anathoth.

Alexander - man-defender. (1.) A relative of Annas the high priest, present when Peter and John were examined before the Sanhedrim (Acts 4:6).

(2.) A man whose father, Simon the Cyrenian, bore the cross of Christ (Mark 15:21).

(3.) A Jew of Ephesus who took a prominent part in the uproar raised there by the preaching of Paul (Acts 19:33). The Jews put him forward to plead their cause before the mob. It was probably intended that he should show that he and the other Jews had no sympathy with Paul any more than the Ephesians had. It is possible that this man was the same as the following.

(4.) A coppersmith who, with Hymenaeus and others, promulgated certain heresies regarding the resurrection (1 Tim. 1:19; 2 Tim. 4:14), and made shipwreck of faith and of a good conscience. Paul excommunicated him (1 Tim. 1:20; comp. 1 Cor. 5:5).

Alexander the Great - the king of Macedonia, the great conqueror; probably represented in Daniel by the "belly of brass" (Dan. 2:32), and the leopard and the he-goat (7:6; 11:3,4). He succeeded his father Philip, and died at the age of thirty-two from the effects of intemperance, B.C. 323. His empire was divided among his four generals.

Alexandria - the ancient metropolis of Lower Egypt, so called from its founder, Alexander the Great (about B.C. 333). It was for a long period the greatest of existing cities, for both Nineveh and Babylon had been destroyed, and Rome had not yet risen to greatness. It was the residence of the kings of Egypt for 200 years. It is not mentioned in the Old Testament, and only incidentally in the New. Apollos, eloquent and mighty in the Scriptures, was a native of this city (Acts 18:24). Many Jews from Alexandria were in Jerusalem, where they had a synagogue (Acts 6:9), at the time of Stephen's martyrdom. At one time it is said that as many as 10,000 Jews resided in this city. It possessed a famous library of 700,000 volumes, which was burned by the Saracens (A.D. 642). It was here that the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek. This is called the Septuagint version, from the tradition that seventy learned men were engaged in executing it. It was, however, not all translated at one time. It was begun B.C. 280, and finished about B.C. 200 or 150. (See VERSION.)

Algum - (2 Chr. 2:8; 9:10,11), the same as almug (1 Kings 10:11).

Alien - a foreigner, or person born in another country, and therefore not entitled to the rights and privileges of the country where he resides. Among the Hebrews there were two classes of aliens.

(1.) Those who were strangers generally, and who owned no landed property.

(2.) Strangers dwelling in another country without being naturalized (Lev. 22:10; Ps. 39:12).

Both of these classes were to enjoy, under certain conditions, the same rights as other citizens (Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 10:19). They might be naturalized and permitted to enter into the congregation of the Lord by submitting to circumcision and abandoning idolatry (Deut. 23:3-8).

This term is used (Eph. 2:12) to denote persons who have no interest in Christ.

Allegory - used only in Gal. 4:24, where the apostle refers to the history of Isaac the free-born, and Ishmael the slave-born, and makes use of it allegorically.

Every parable is an allegory. Nathan (2 Sam. 12:1-4) addresses David in an allegorical narrative. In the eightieth Psalm there is a beautiful allegory: "Thou broughtest a vine out of Egypt," etc. In Eccl. 12:2-6, there is a striking allegorical description of old age.

Alleluia - the Greek form (Rev. 19:1, 3, 4, 6) of the Hebrew Hallelujah = Praise ye Jehovah, which begins or ends several of the psalms (106, 111, 112, 113, etc.).

Alliance - a treaty between nations, or between individuals, for their mutual advantage.

Abraham formed an alliance with some of the Canaanitish princes (Gen. 14:13), also with Abimelech (21:22-32). Joshua and the elders of Israel entered into an alliance with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9:3-27). When the Israelites entered Palestine they were forbidden to enter into alliances with the inhabitants of the country (Lev. 18:3, 4; 20:22, 23).

Solomon formed a league with Hiram (1 Kings 5:12). This "brotherly covenant" is referred to 250 years afterwards (Amos 1:9). He also appears to have entered into an alliance with Pharaoh (1 Kings 10:28, 29).

In the subsequent history of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel various alliances were formed between them and also with neighbouring nations at different times.

From patriarchal times a covenant of alliance was sealed by the blood of some sacrificial victim. The animal sacrificed was cut in two (except birds), and between these two parts the persons contracting the alliance passed (Gen. 15:10). There are frequent allusions to this practice (Jer. 34:18). Such alliances were called "covenants of salt" (Num. 18:19; 2 Chr. 13:5), salt being the symbol of perpetuity. A pillar was set up as a memorial of the alliance between Laban and Jacob (Gen. 31:52). The Jews throughout their whole history attached great importance to fidelity to their engagements. Divine wrath fell upon the violators of them (Josh. 9:18; 2 Sam. 21:1, 2; Ezek. 17:16).

Allon - oak. (1.) The expression in the Authorized Version of Josh. 19:33, "from Allon to Zaanannim," is more correctly rendered in the Revised Version, "from the oak in Zaanannim." The word denotes some remarkable tree which stood near Zaanannim, and which served as a landmark.

(2.) The son of Jedaiah, of the family of the Simeonites, who expelled the Hamites from the valley of Gedor (1 Chr. 4:37).

Allon-bachuth - oak of weeping, a tree near Bethel, at the spot where Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried (Gen. 35:8). Large trees, from their rarity in the plains of Palestine, were frequently designated as landmarks. This particular tree was probably the same as the "palm tree of Deborah" (Judg. 4:5).

Almodad - immeasurable, the first named of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 10:26), the founder of an Arabian tribe.

Almon - hidden, one of the sacerdotal cities of Benjamin (Josh. 21:18), called also Alemeth (1 Chr. 6:60).

Almond - a native of Syria and Palestine. In form, blossoms, and fruit it resembles the peach tree. Its blossoms are of a very pale pink colour, and appear before its leaves. Its Hebrew name, shaked, signifying "wakeful, hastening," is given to it on account of its putting forth its blossoms so early, generally in February, and sometimes even in January. In Eccl. 12:5, it is referred to as illustrative, probably, of the haste with which old age comes. There are others, however, who still contend for the old interpretation here. "The almond tree bears its blossoms in the midst of winter, on a naked, leafless stem, and these blossoms (reddish or flesh-coloured in the beginning) seem at the time of their fall exactly like white snow-flakes. In this way the almond blossom is a very fitting symbol of old age, with its silvery hair and its wintry, dry, barren, unfruitful condition." In Jer. 1:11 "I see a rod of an almond tree [shaked]...for I will hasten [shaked] my word to perform it" the word is used as an emblem of promptitude. Jacob desired his sons (Gen. 43:11) to take with them into Egypt of the best fruits of the land, almonds, etc., as a present to Joseph, probably because this tree was not a native of Egypt. Aaron's rod yielded almonds (Num. 17:8; Heb. 9:4). Moses was directed to make certain parts of the candlestick for the ark of carved work "like unto almonds" (Ex. 25:33, 34). The Hebrew word luz, translated "hazel" in the Authorized Version (Gen. 30:37), is rendered in the Revised Version "almond." It is probable that luz denotes the wild almond, while shaked denotes the cultivated variety.

Alms - Not found in the Old Testament, but repeatedly in the New. The Mosaic legislation (Lev. 25:35; Deut. 15:7) tended to promote a spirit of charity, and to prevent the occurrence of destitution among the people. Such passages as these, Ps. 41:1; 112:9; Prov. 14:31; Isa. 10:2; Amos 2:7; Jer. 5:28; Ezek. 22:29, would also naturally foster the same benevolent spirit.

In the time of our Lord begging was common (Mark 10:46; Acts 3:2). The Pharisees were very ostentatious in their almsgivings (Matt. 6:2). The spirit by which the Christian ought to be actuated in this duty is set forth in 1 John 3:17. A regard to the state of the poor and needy is enjoined as a Christian duty (Luke 3:11; 6:30; Matt. 6:1; Acts 9:36; 10:2, 4), a duty which was not neglected by the early Christians (Luke 14:13; Acts 20:35; Gal. 2:10; Rom. 15:25-27; 1 Cor. 16:1-4). They cared not only for the poor among themselves, but contributed also to the necessities of those at a distance (Acts 11:29; 24:17; 2 Cor. 9:12). Our Lord and his attendants showed an example also in this (John 13:29).

In modern times the "poor-laws" have introduced an element which modifies considerably the form in which we may discharge this Christian duty.

Almug - (1 Kings 10:11, 12) = algum (2 Chr. 2:8; 9:10, 11), in the Hebrew occurring only in the plural almuggim (indicating that the wood was brought in planks), the name of a wood brought from Ophir to be used in the building of the temple, and for other purposes. Some suppose it to have been the white sandal-wood of India, the Santalum album of botanists, a native of the mountainous parts of the Malabar coasts. It is a fragrant wood, and is used in China for incense in idol-worship. Others, with some probability, think that it was the Indian red sandal-wood, the pterocarpus santalinus, a heavy, fine-grained wood, the Sanscrit name of which is valguka. It is found on the Coromandel coast and in Ceylon.

Aloes - (Heb. 'ahalim), a fragrant wood (Num. 24:6; Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Cant. 4:14), the Aquilaria agallochum of botanists, or, as some suppose, the costly gum or perfume extracted from the wood. It is found in China, Siam, and Northern India, and grows to the height sometimes of 120 feet. This species is of great rarity even in India. There is another and more common species, called by Indians aghil, whence Europeans have given it the name of Lignum aquile, or eagle-wood. Aloewood was used by the Egyptians for embalming dead bodies. Nicodemus brought it (pounded aloe-wood) to embalm the body of Christ (John 19:39); but whether this was the same as that mentioned elsewhere is uncertain.

The bitter aloes of the apothecary is the dried juice of the leaves Aloe vulgaris.

Alphaeus - (1.) The father of James the Less, the apostle and writer of the epistle (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13), and the husband of Mary (John 19:25). The Hebrew form of this name is Cleopas, or Clopas (q.v.).

(2.) The father of Levi, or Matthew (Mark 2:14).

Altar - (Heb. mizbe'ah, from a word meaning "to slay"), any structure of earth (Ex. 20:24) or unwrought stone (20:25) on which sacrifices were offered. Altars were generally erected in conspicuous places (Gen. 22:9; Ezek. 6:3; 2 Kings 23:12; 16:4; 23:8; Acts 14:13). The word is used in Heb. 13:10 for the sacrifice offered upon it--the sacrifice Christ offered.

Paul found among the many altars erected in Athens one bearing the inscription, "To the unknown God" (Acts 17:23), or rather "to an [i.e., some] unknown God." The reason for this inscription cannot now be accurately determined. It afforded the apostle the occasion of proclaiming the gospel to the "men of Athens."

The first altar we read of is that erected by Noah (Gen. 8:20). Altars were erected by Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 13:4; 22:9), by Isaac (Gen. 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 35:1, 3), and by Moses (Ex. 17:15, "Jehovah-nissi").

In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars were erected.

(1.) The altar of burnt offering (Ex. 30:28), called also the "brasen altar" (Ex. 39:39) and "the table of the Lord" (Mal. 1:7).

This altar, as erected in the tabernacle, is described in Ex. 27:1-8. It was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and in breadth, and 3 cubits in height. It was made of shittim wood, and was overlaid with plates of brass. Its corners were ornamented with "horns" (Ex. 29:12; Lev. 4:18).

In Ex. 27:3 the various utensils appertaining to the altar are enumerated. They were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Sam. 2:13, 14; Lev. 16:12; Num. 16:6, 7.)

In Solomon's temple the altar was of larger dimensions (2 Chr. 4:1. Comp. 1 Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made wholly of brass, covering a structure of stone or earth. This altar was renewed by Asa (2 Chr. 15:8). It was removed by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:14), and "cleansed" by Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign it was rebuilt. It was finally broken up and carried away by the Babylonians (Jer. 52:17).

After the return from captivity it was re-erected (Ezra 3:3, 6) on the same place where it had formerly stood. (Comp. 1 Macc. 4:47.) When Antiochus Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem the altar of burnt offering was taken away.

Again the altar was erected by Herod, and remained in its place till the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (70 A.D.).

The fire on the altar was not permitted to go out (Lev. 6:9).

In the Mosque of Omar, immediately underneath the great dome, which occupies the site of the old temple, there is a rough projection of the natural rock, of about 60 feet in its extreme length, and 50 in its greatest breadth, and in its highest part about 4 feet above the general pavement. This rock seems to have been left intact when Solomon's temple was built. It was in all probability the site of the altar of burnt offering. Underneath this rock is a cave, which may probably have been the granary of Araunah's threshing-floor (1 Chr. 21:22).

(2.) The altar of incense (Ex. 30:1-10), called also "the golden altar" (39:38; Num. 4:11), stood in the holy place "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony." On this altar sweet spices were continually burned with fire taken from the brazen altar. The morning and the evening services were commenced by the high priest offering incense on this altar. The burning of the incense was a type of prayer (Ps. 141:2; Rev. 5:8; 8:3, 4).

This altar was a small movable table, made of acacia wood overlaid with gold (Ex. 37:25, 26). It was 1 cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height.

In Solomon's temple the altar was similar in size, but was made of cedar-wood (1 Kings 6:20; 7:48) overlaid with gold. In Ezek. 41:22 it is called "the altar of wood." (Comp. Ex. 30:1-6.)

In the temple built after the Exile the altar was restored. Antiochus Epiphanes took it away, but it was afterwards restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49). Among the trophies carried away by Titus on the destruction of Jerusalem the altar of incense is not found, nor is any mention made of it in Heb. 9. It was at this altar Zacharias ministered when an angel appeared to him (Luke 1:11). It is the only altar which appears in the heavenly temple (Isa. 6:6; Rev. 8:3,4).

Altaschith - destroy not, the title of Ps. 57, 58, 59, and 75. It was probably the name of some song to the melody of which these psalms were to be chanted.

Alush - one of the places, the last before Rephidim, at which the Hebrews rested on their way to Sinai (Num. 33:13, 14). It was probably situated on the shore of the Red Sea.

Amalek - dweller in a valley, the son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gen. 36:12; 1 Chr. 1:36); the chief of an Idumean tribe (Gen. 36:16). His mother was a Horite, a tribe whose territory the descendants of Esau had seized.

Amalekite - a tribe that dwelt in Arabia Petraea, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea. They were not the descendants of Amalek, the son of Eliphaz, for they existed in the days of Abraham (Gen. 14:7). They were probably a tribe that migrated from the shores of the Persian Gulf and settled in Arabia. "They dwelt in the land of the south...from Havilah until thou comest to Shur" (Num. 13:29; 1 Sam. 15:7). They were a pastoral, and hence a nomadic race. Their kings bore the hereditary name of Agag (Num. 24:7; 1 Sam. 15:8). They attempted to stop the Israelites when they marched through their territory (Deut. 25:18), attacking them at Rephidim (Ex. 17:8-13; comp. Deut. 25:17; 1 Sam. 15:2). They afterwards attacked the Israelites at Hormah (Num. 14:45). We read of them subsequently as in league with the Moabites (Judg. 3:13) and the Midianites (Judg. 6:3). Saul finally desolated their territory and destroyed their power (1 Sam. 14:48; 15:3), and David recovered booty from them (1 Sam. 30:18-20). In the Babylonian inscriptions they are called Sute, in those of Egypt Sittiu, and the Amarna tablets include them under the general name of Khabbati, or "plunderers."

Amana - perennial. (1.) The Hebrew margin of 2 Kings 5:12 gives this as another reading of Abana (q.v.), a stream near Damascus.

(2.) A mountain (Cant. 4:8), probably the southern summit of Anti-Libanus, at the base of which are the sources of the Abana.

Amariah - said by Jehovah. (1.) One of the descendants of Aaron by Eleazar (1 Chr. 6:7,52). He was probably the last of the high priests of Eleazar's line prior to the transfer of that office to Eli, of the line of Ithamar.

(2.) A Levite, son of Hebron, of the lineage of Moses (1 Chr. 23:19; 24:23).

(3.) A "chief priest" who took an active part in the reformation under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 19:11); probably the same as mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:9.

(4.) 1 Chr. 6:11; Ezra 7:3. (5.) One of the high priests in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:15). (6.) Zeph. 1:1. (7.) Neh. 11:4. (8.) Neh. 10:3. (9.) Ezra 10:42.

Amasa - burden. (1.) The son of Abigail, a sister of king David (1 Chr. 2:17; 2 Sam. 17:25). He was appointed by David to command the army in room of his cousin Joab (2 Sam. 19:13), who afterwards treacherously put him to death as a dangerous rival (2 Sam. 20:4-12).

(2.) A son of Hadlai, and chief of Ephraim (2 Chr. 28:12) in the reign of Ahaz.

Amasai - burdensome. (1.) A Levite, son of Elkanah, of the ancestry of Samuel (1 Chr. 6:25, 35).

(2.) The leader of a body of men who joined David in the "stronghold," probably of Adullam (1 Chr. 12:18).

(3.) One of the priests appointed to precede the ark with blowing of trumpets on its removal from the house of Obed-edom (1 Chr. 15:24).

(4.) The father of a Levite, one of the two Kohathites who took a prominent part at the instance of Hezekiah in the cleansing of the temple (2 Chr. 29:12).

Amashai - the son of Azareel, appointed by Nehemiah to reside at Jerusalem and do the work of the temple (Neh. 11:13).

Amasiah - burden of (i.e., "sustained by") Jehovah, the "son of Zichri, who willingly offered himself unto the Lord," a captain over thousands under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 17:16; comp. Judg. 5:9).

Amaziah - strengthened by Jehovah. (1.) A Levite, son of Hilkiah, of the descendants of Ethan the Merarite (1 Chr. 6:45).

(2.) The son and successor of Joash, and eighth king of the separate kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 14:1-4). He began his reign by punishing the murderers of his father (5-7; 2 Chr. 25:3-5). He was the first to employ a mercenary army of 100,000 Israelite soldiers, which he did in his attempt to bring the Edomites again under the yoke of Judah (2 Chr. 25:5, 6). He was commanded by a prophet of the Lord to send back the mercenaries, which he did (2 Chr. 25:7-10, 13), much to their annoyance. His obedience to this command was followed by a decisive victory over the Edomites (2 Chr. 25:14-16). Amaziah began to worship some of the idols he took from the Edomites, and this was his ruin, for he was vanquished by Joash, king of Israel, whom he challenged to battle. The disaster he thus brought upon Judah by his infatuation in proclaiming war against Israel probably occasioned the conspiracy by which he lost his life (2 Kings 14:8-14, 19). He was slain at Lachish, whither he had fled, and his body was brought upon horses to Jerusalem, where it was buried in the royal sepulchre (2 Kings 14:19, 20; 2 Chr. 25:27, 28).

(3.) A priest of the golden calves at Bethel (Amos 7:10-17).

(4.) The father of Joshah, one of the Simeonite chiefs in the time of Hezekiah (1 Chr. 4:34).

Ambassador - In the Old Testament the Hebrew word tsir, meaning "one who goes on an errand," is rendered thus (Josh. 9:4; Prov. 13:17; Isa. 18:2; Jer. 49:14; Obad. 1:1). This is also the rendering of melits, meaning "an interpreter," in 2 Chr. 32:31; and of malak, a "messenger," in 2 Chr. 35:21; Isa. 30:4; 33:7; Ezek. 17:15. This is the name used by the apostle as designating those who are appointed by God to declare his will (2 Cor. 5:20; Eph. 6:20).

The Hebrews on various occasions and for various purposes had recourse to the services of ambassadors, e.g., to contract alliances (Josh. 9:4), to solicit favours (Num. 20:14), to remonstrate when wrong was done (Judg. 11:12), to condole with a young king on the death of his father (2 Sam. 10:2), and to congratulate a king on his accession to the throne (1 Kings 5:1).

To do injury to an ambassador was to insult the king who sent him (2 Sam. 10:5).

Amber - (Ezek. 1:4, 27; 8:2. Heb., hashmal, rendered by the LXX. elektron, and by the Vulgate electrum), a metal compounded of silver and gold. Some translate the word by "polished brass," others "fine brass," as in Rev. 1:15; 2:18. It was probably the mixture now called electrum. The word has no connection, however, with what is now called amber, which is a gummy substance, reckoned as belonging to the mineral kingdom though of vegetable origin, a fossil resin.

Ambush - Joshua at the capture of Ai lay in ambush, and so deceived the inhabitants that he gained an easy victory (Josh. 8:4-26). Shechem was taken in this manner (Judg. 9:30-

Amen - This Hebrew word means firm, and hence also faithful (Rev. 3:14). In Isa. 65:16, the Authorized Version has "the God of truth," which in Hebrew is "the God of Amen." It is frequently used by our Saviour to give emphasis to his words, where it is translated "verily." Sometimes, only, however, in John's Gospel, it is repeated, "Verily, verily." It is used as an epithet of the Lord Jesus Christ (Rev. 3:14).

It is found singly and sometimes doubly at the end of prayers (Ps. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52), to confirm the words and invoke the fulfilment of them. It is used in token of being bound by an oath (Num. 5:22; Deut. 27:15-26; Neh. 5:13; 8:6; 1 Chr. 16:36). In the primitive churches it was common for the general audience to say "Amen" at the close of the prayer (1 Cor. 14:16).

The promises of God are Amen; i.e., they are all true and sure (2 Cor. 1:20).

Amethyst - one of the precious stones in the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. 28:19; 39:12), and in the foundation of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21:20). The ancients thought that this stone had the power of dispelling drunkenness in all who wore or touched it, and hence its Greek name formed from a_, "privative," and _methuo, "to get drunk." Its Jewish name, ahlamah', was derived by the rabbins from the Hebrew word halam, "to dream," from its supposed power of causing the wearer to dream.

It is a pale-blue crystallized quartz, varying to a dark purple blue. It is found in Persia and India, also in different parts of Europe.

Amittai - true, the father of Jonah the prophet, a native of Gath-hepher (2 Kings 14:25; Jonah 1:1).

Ammah - a cubit, the name of a hill which Joab and Abishai reached as the sun went down, when they were in pursuit of Abner (2 Sam. 2:24). It lay to the east of Gibeon.

Ammi - my people, a name given by Jehovah to the people of Israel (Hos. 2:1, 23. Comp. 1:9; Ezek. 16:8; Rom. 9:25, 26; 1 Pet. 2:10).

Ammiel - people of God. (1.) One of the twelve spies sent by Moses to search the land of Canaan (Num. 13:12). He was one of the ten who perished by the plague for their unfavourable report (Num. 14:37).

(2.) The father of Machir of Lo-debar, in whose house Mephibosheth resided (2 Sam. 9:4, 5; 17:27).

(3.) The father of Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, and afterwards of David (1 Chr. 3:5). He is called Eliam in 2 Sam. 11:3.

(4.) One of the sons of Obed-edom the Levite (1 Chr. 26:5).

Ammihud - people of glory; i.e., "renowned." (1.) The father of the Ephraimite chief Elishama, at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:10; 2:18; 7:48, 53).

(2.) Num. 34:20. (3.) Num. 34:28.

(4.) The father of Talmai, king of Geshur, to whom Absalom fled after the murder of Amnon (2 Sam. 13:37).

(5.) The son of Omri, and the father of Uthai (1 Chr. 9:4).

Amminadab - kindred of the prince. (1.) The father of Nahshon, who was chief of the tribe of Judah (Num. 1:7; 2:3; 7:12, 17; 10:14). His daughter Elisheba was married to Aaron (Ex. 6:23).

(2.) A son of Kohath, the second son of Levi (1 Chr. 6:22), called also Izhar (2, 18).

(3.) Chief of the 112 descendants of Uzziel the Levite (1 Chr. 15:10, 11).

Amminadib - a person mentioned in Cant. 6:12, whose chariots were famed for their swiftness. It is rendered in the margin "my willing people," and in the Revised Version "my princely people."

Ammishaddai - people of the Almighty, the father of Ahiezer, who was chief of the Danites at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:12; 2:25). This is one of the few names compounded with the name of God, Shaddai, "Almighty."

Ammizabad - people of the giver, the son of Benaiah, who was the third and chief captain of the host under David (1 Chr. 27:6).

Ammon - another form of the name Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. 19:38). This name is also used for his posterity (Ps. 83:7).

Ammonite - the usual name of the descendants of Ammon, the son of Lot (Gen. 19:38). From the very beginning (Deut. 2:16-20) of their history till they are lost sight of (Judg. 5:2), this tribe is closely associated with the Moabites (Judg. 10:11; 2 Chr. 20:1; Zeph. 2:8). Both of these tribes hired Balaam to curse Israel (Deut. 23:4). The Ammonites were probably more of a predatory tribe, moving from place to place, while the Moabites were more settled. They inhabited the country east of the Jordan and north of Moab and the Dead Sea, from which they had expelled the Zamzummims or Zuzims (Deut. 2:20; Gen. 14:5). They are known as the Beni-ammi (Gen. 19:38), Ammi or Ammon being worshipped as their chief god. They were of Semitic origin, and closely related to the Hebrews in blood and language. They showed no kindness to the Israelites when passing through their territory, and therefore they were prohibited from "entering the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation" (Deut. 23:3). They afterwards became hostile to Israel (Judg. 3:13). Jephthah waged war against them, and "took twenty cities with a very great slaughter" (Judg. 11:33). They were again signally defeated by Saul (1 Sam. 11:11). David also defeated them and their allies the Syrians (2 Sam. 10:6-14), and took their chief city, Rabbah, with much spoil (2 Sam. 10:14; 12:26-31). The subsequent events of their history are noted in 2 Chr. 20:25; 26:8; Jer. 49:1; Ezek. 25:3, 6. One of Solomon's wives was Naamah, an Ammonite. She was the mother of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14:31; 2 Chr. 12:13).

The prophets predicted fearful judgments against the Ammonites because of their hostility to Israel (Zeph. 2:8; Jer. 49:1-6; Ezek. 25:1-5, 10; Amos 1:13-15).

The national idol worshipped by this people was Molech or Milcom, at whose altar they offered human sacrifices (1 Kings 11:5, 7). The high places built for this idol by Solomon, at the instigation of his Ammonitish wives, were not destroyed till the time of Josiah (2 Kings 23:13).

Amnon - faithful. (1.) One of the sons of Shammai, of the children of Ezra (1 Chr. 4:20; comp. 17).

(2.) The eldest son of David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chr. 3:1; 2 Sam. 3:2). Absalom caused him to be put to death for his great crime in the matter of Tamar (2 Sam. 13:28, 29).

Amon - builder. (1.) The governor of Samaria in the time of Ahab. The prophet Micaiah was committed to his custody (1 Kings 22:26; 2 Chr. 18:25).

(2.) The son of Manasseh, and fourteenth king of Judah. He restored idolatry, and set up the images which his father had cast down. Zephaniah (1:4; 3:4, 11) refers to the moral depravity prevailing in this king's reign.

He was assassinated (2 Kings 21:18-26: 2 Chr. 33:20-25) by his own servants, who conspired against him.

(3.) An Egyptian god, usually depicted with a human body and the head of a ram, referred to in Jer. 46:25, where the word "multitudes" in the Authorized Version is more appropriately rendered "Amon" in the Revised Version. In Nah. 3:8 the expression "populous No" of the Authorized version is rendered in the Revised Version "No-amon." Amon is identified with Ra, the sun-god of Heliopolis.

(4.) Neh. 7:59.

Amorites - highlanders, or hillmen, the name given to the descendants of one of the sons of Canaan (Gen. 14:7), called Amurra or Amurri in the Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions. On the early Babylonian monuments all Syria, including Palestine, is known as "the land of the Amorites." The southern slopes of the mountains of Judea are called the "mount of the Amorites" (Deut. 1:7, 19, 20). They seem to have originally occupied the land stretching from the heights west of the Dead Sea (Gen. 14:7) to Hebron (13. Comp. 13:8; Deut. 3:8; 4:46-48), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (Deut. 3:10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (4:49), the land of the "two kings of the Amorites," Sihon and Og (Deut. 31:4; Josh. 2:10; 9:10). The five kings of the Amorites were defeated with great slaughter by Joshua (10:10). They were again defeated at the waters of Merom by Joshua, who smote them till there were none remaining (Josh. 11:8). It is mentioned as a surprising circumstance that in the days of Samuel there was peace between them and the Israelites (1 Sam. 7:14). The discrepancy supposed to exist between Deut. 1:44 and Num. 14:45 is explained by the circumstance that the terms "Amorites" and "Amalekites" are used synonymously for the "Canaanites." In the same way we explain the fact that the "Hivites" of Gen. 34:2 are the "Amorites" of 48:22. Comp. Josh. 10:6; 11:19 with 2 Sam. 21:2; also Num. 14:45 with Deut. 1:44. The Amorites were warlike mountaineers. They are represented on the Egyptian monuments with fair skins, light hair, blue eyes, aquiline noses, and pointed beards. They are supposed to have been men of great stature; their king, Og, is described by Moses as the last "of the remnant of the giants" (Deut. 3:11). Both Sihon and Og were independent kings. Only one word of the Amorite language survives, "Shenir," the name they gave to Mount Hermon (Deut. 3:9).

Amos - borne; a burden, one of the twelve minor prophets. He was a native of Tekota, the modern Tekua, a town about 12 miles south-east of Bethlehem. He was a man of humble birth, neither a "prophet nor a prophet's son," but "an herdman and a dresser of sycomore trees," R.V. He prophesied in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and was contemporary with Isaiah and Hosea (Amos 1:1; 7:14, 15; Zech. 14:5), who survived him a few years. Under Jeroboam II. the kingdom of Israel rose to the zenith of its prosperity; but that was followed by the prevalence of luxury and vice and idolatry. At this period Amos was called from his obscurity to remind the people of the law of God's retributive justice, and to call them to repentance.

The Book of Amos consists of three parts:

(1.) The nations around are summoned to judgment because of their sins (1:1-2:3). He quotes Joel 3:16.

(2.) The spiritual condition of Judah, and especially of Israel, is described (2:4-6:14).

(3.) In 7:1-9:10 are recorded five prophetic visions. (a) The first two (7:1-6) refer to judgments against the guilty people. (b) The next two (7:7-9; 8:1-3) point out the ripeness of the people for the threatened judgements. 7:10-17 consists of a conversation between the prophet and the priest of Bethel. (c) The fifth describes the overthrow and ruin of Israel (9:1-10); to which is added the promise of the restoration of the kingdom and its final glory in the Messiah's kingdom.

The style is peculiar in the number of the allusions made to natural objects and to agricultural occupations. Other allusions show also that Amos was a student of the law as well as a "child of nature." These phrases are peculiar to him: "Cleanness of teeth" [i.e., want of bread] (4:6); "The excellency of Jacob" (6:8; 8:7); "The high places of Isaac" (7:9); "The house of Isaac" (7:16); "He that createth the wind" (4:13). Quoted, Acts 7:42.

Amoz - strong, the father of the prophet Isaiah (2 Kings 19:2, 20; 20:1; Isa. 1:1; 2:1). As to his personal history little is positively known. He is supposed by some to have been the "man of God" spoken of in 2 Chr. 25:7, 8.

Amphipolis - city on both sides, a Macedonian city, a great Roman military station, through which Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalonica, a distance of 33 Roman miles from Philippi (Acts 17:1).

Amplias - a Roman Christian saluted by Paul (Rom. 16:8).

Amram - kindred of the High; i.e., "friend of Jehovah." (1.) The son of Kohath, the son of Levi. He married Jochebed, "his father's sister," and was the father of Aaron, Miriam, and Moses (Ex. 6:18, 20; Num. 3:19). He died in Egypt at the age of 137 years (Ex. 6:20). His descendants were called Amramites (Num. 3:27; 1 Chr. 26:23). (2.) Ezra 10:34.

Amraphel - king of Shinar, southern Chaldea, one of the confederates of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, in a war against Sodom and cities of the plain (Gen. 14:1, 4). It is now found that Amraphel (or Ammirapaltu) is the Khammu-rabi whose name appears on recently-discovered monuments. (See CHEDORLAOMER ¯T0000781). After defeating Arioch (q.v.) he united Babylonia under one rule, and made Babylon his capital.

Anab - grape-town, one of the cities in the mountains of Judah, from which Joshua expelled the Anakim (Josh. 11:21; 15:50). It still retains its ancient name. It lies among the hills, 10 miles south-south-west of Hebron.

Anah - speech. (1.) One of the sons of Seir, and head of an Idumean tribe, called a Horite, as in course of time all the branches of this tribe were called from their dwelling in caves in Mount Seir (Gen. 36:20, 29; 1 Chr. 1:38).

(2.) One of the two sons of Zibeon the Horite, and father of Esau's wife Aholibamah (Gen. 36:18, 24).

Anak - long-necked, the son of Arba, father of the Anakim (Josh. 15:13; 21:11, Heb. Anok).

Anakim - the descendants of Anak (Josh. 11:21; Num. 13:33; Deut. 9:2). They dwelt in the south of Palestine, in the neighbourhood of Hebron (Gen. 23:2; Josh. 15:13). In the days of Abraham (Gen. 14:5, 6) they inhabited the region afterwards known as Edom and Moab, east of the Jordan. They were probably a remnant of the original inhabitants of Palestine before the Canaanites, a Cushite tribe from Babel, and of the same race as the Phoenicians and the Egyptian shepherd kings. Their formidable warlike appearance, as described by the spies sent to search the land, filled the Israelites with terror. They seem to have identified them with the Nephilim, the "giants" (Gen. 6:4; Num. 13:33) of the antediluvian age. There were various tribes of Anakim (Josh. 15:14). Joshua finally expelled them from the land, except a remnant that found a refuge in the cities of Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. 11:22). The Philistine giants whom David encountered (2 Sam. 21:15-22) were descendants of the Anakim. (See GIANTS.)

Anamim - the name of an Egyptian tribe descended from Mizraim (Gen. 10:13; 1 Chr. 1:11).

Anammelech - one of the gods worshipped by the people of Sepharvaim, who colonized Samaria (2 Kings 17:31). The name means "Anu is king." It was a female deity representing the moon, as Adrammelech (q.v.) was the male representing the sun.

Anan - cloud, one of the Israelites who sealed the covenant after the return from Babylon (Neh. 10:26).

Ananiah - protected by Jehovah, the name of a town in the tribe of Benjamin between Nob and Hazor (Neh. 11:32). It is probably the modern Beit Hanina, a small village 3 miles north of Jerusalem.

Ananias - a common Jewish name, the same as Hananiah. (1.) One of the members of the church at Jerusalem, who conspired with his wife Sapphira to deceive the brethren, and who fell down and immediately expired after he had uttered the falsehood (Acts 5:5). By common agreement the members of the early Christian community devoted their property to the work of furthering the gospel and of assisting the poor and needy. The proceeds of the possessions they sold were placed at the disposal of the apostles (Acts 4:36, 37). Ananias might have kept his property had he so chosen; but he professed agreement with the brethren in the common purpose, and had of his own accord devoted it all, as he said, to these sacred ends. Yet he retained a part of it for his own ends, and thus lied in declaring that he had given it all. "The offence of Ananias and Sapphira showed contempt of God, vanity and ambition in the offenders, and utter disregard of the corruption which they were bringing into the society. Such sin, committed in despite of the light which they possessed, called for a special mark of divine indignation."

(2.) A Christian at Damascus (Acts 9:10). He became Paul's instructor; but when or by what means he himself became a Christian we have no information. He was "a devout man according to the law, having a good report of all the Jews which dwelt" at Damascus (22:12).

(3.) The high priest before whom Paul was brought in the procuratorship of Felix (Acts 23:2, 5, 24). He was so enraged at Paul's noble declaration, "I have lived in all good conscience before God until this day," that he commanded one of his attendants to smite him on the mouth. Smarting under this unprovoked insult, Paul quickly replied, "God shall smite thee, thou whited wall." Being reminded that Ananias was the high priest, to whose office all respect was to be paid, he answered, "I wist not, brethren, that he was the high priest" (Acts 23:5). This expression has occasioned some difficulty, as it is scarcely probable that Paul should have been ignorant of so public a fact. The expression may mean (a) that Paul had at the moment overlooked the honour due to the high priest; or (b), as others think, that Paul spoke ironically, as if he had said, "The high priest breaking the law! God's high priest a tyrant and a lawbreaker! I see a man in white robes, and have heard his voice, but surely it cannot, it ought not to be, the voice of the high priest." (See Dr. Lindsay on Acts, in loco.) (c) Others think that from defect of sight Paul could not observe that the speaker was the high priest. In all this, however, it may be explained, Paul, with all his excellency, comes short of the example of his divine Master, who, when he was reviled, reviled not again.

Anath - an answer; i.e., to "prayer", the father of Shamgar, who was one of the judges of Israel (Judg. 3:31).

Anathema - anything laid up or suspended; hence anything laid up in a temple or set apart as sacred. In this sense the form of the word is anath(ee)ma, once in plural used in the Greek New Testament, in Luke 21:5, where it is rendered "gifts." In the LXX. the form anathema is generally used as the rendering of the Hebrew word herem, derived from a verb which means (1) to consecrate or devote; and (2) to exterminate. Any object so devoted to the Lord could not be redeemed (Num. 18:14; Lev. 27:28, 29); and hence the idea of exterminating connected with the word. The Hebrew verb (haram) is frequently used of the extermination of idolatrous nations. It had a wide range of application. The anathema_ or _herem was a person or thing irrevocably devoted to God (Lev. 27:21, 28); and "none devoted shall be ransomed. He shall surely be put to death" (27:29). The word therefore carried the idea of devoted to destruction (Num. 21:2, 3; Josh. 6:17); and hence generally it meant a thing accursed. In Deut. 7:26 an idol is called a herem = anathema, a thing accursed.

In the New Testament this word always implies execration. In some cases an individual denounces an anathema on himself unless certain conditions are fulfilled (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). "To call Jesus accursed" [anathema] (1 Cor. 12:3) is to pronounce him execrated or accursed. If any one preached another gospel, the apostle says, "let him be accursed" (Gal. 1:8, 9); i.e., let his conduct in so doing be accounted accursed.

In Rom. 9:3, the expression "accursed" (anathema) from Christ, i.e., excluded from fellowship or alliance with Christ, has occasioned much difficulty. The apostle here does not speak of his wish as a possible thing. It is simply a vehement expression of feeling, showing how strong was his desire for the salvation of his people.

The anathema in 1 Cor. 16:22 denotes simply that they who love not the Lord are rightly objects of loathing and execration to all holy beings; they are guilty of a crime that merits the severest condemnation; they are exposed to the just sentence of "everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord."

Anathoth - the name of one of the cities of refuge, in the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. 21:18). The Jews, as a rule, did not change the names of the towns they found in Palestine; hence this town may be regarded as deriving its name from the goddess Anat. It was the native place of Abiezer, one of David's "thirty" (2 Sam. 23:27), and of Jehu, another of his mighty men (1 Chr. 12:3). It is chiefly notable, however, as the birth-place and usual residence of Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1; 11:21-23; 29:27; 32:7-9). It suffered greatly from the army of Sennacherib, and only 128 men returned to it from the Exile (Neh. 7:27; Ezra 2:23). It lay about 3 miles north of Jerusalem. It has been identified with the small and poor village of 'Anata, containing about 100 inhabitants.

Anchor - From Acts 27:29, 30, 40, it would appear that the Roman vessels carried several anchors, which were attached to the stern as well as to the prow. The Roman anchor, like the modern one, had two teeth or flukes. In Heb. 6:19 the word is used metaphorically for that which supports or keeps one steadfast in the time of trial or of doubt. It is an emblem of hope.

"If you fear, Put all your trust in God: that anchor holds."

Ancient of Days - an expression applied to Jehovah three times in the vision of Daniel (7:9, 13, 22) in the sense of eternal. In contrast with all earthly kings, his days are past reckoning.

Andrew - manliness, a Greek name; one of the apostles of our Lord. He was of Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1:44), and was the brother of Simon Peter (Matt. 4:18; 10:2). On one occasion John the Baptist, whose disciple he then was, pointing to Jesus, said, "Behold the Lamb of God" (John 1:40); and Andrew, hearing him, immediately became a follower of Jesus, the first of his disciples. After he had been led to recognize Jesus as the Messiah, his first care was to bring also his brother Simon to Jesus. The two brothers seem to have after this pursued for a while their usual calling as fishermen, and did not become the stated attendants of the Lord till after John's imprisonment (Matt. 4:18, 19; Mark 1:16, 17). Very little is related of Andrew. He was one of the confidential disciples (John 6:8; 12:22), and with Peter, James, and John inquired of our Lord privately regarding his future coming (Mark 13:3). He was present at the feeding of the five thousand (John 6:9), and he introduced the Greeks who desired to see Jesus (John 12:22); but of his subsequent history little is known. It is noteworthy that Andrew thrice brings others to Christ, (1) Peter; (2) the lad with the loaves; and (3) certain Greeks. These incidents may be regarded as a key to his character.

Andronicus - man-conquering, a Jewish Christian, the kinsman and fellowprisoner of Paul (Rom. 16:7); "of note among the apostles."

Anem - two fountains, a Levitical city in the tribe of Issachar (1 Chr. 6:73). It is also called En-gannim (q.v.) in Josh. 19:21; the modern Jenin.

Aner - a boy. (1.) A Canaanitish chief who joined his forces with those of Abraham in pursuit of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:13,24).

(2.) A city of Manasseh given to the Levites of Kohath's family (1 Chr. 6:70).

Angel - a word signifying, both in the Hebrew and Greek, a "messenger," and hence employed to denote any agent God sends forth to execute his purposes. It is used of an ordinary messenger (Job 1:14: 1 Sam. 11:3; Luke 7:24; 9:52), of prophets (Isa. 42:19; Hag. 1:13), of priests (Mal. 2:7), and ministers of the New Testament (Rev. 1:20).

It is also applied to such impersonal agents as the pestilence (2 Sam. 24:16, 17; 2 Kings 19:35), the wind (Ps. 104:4).

But its distinctive application is to certain heavenly intelligences whom God employs in carrying on his government of the world. The name does not denote their nature but their office as messengers. The appearances to Abraham at Mamre (Gen. 18:2, 22. Comp. 19:1), to Jacob at Peniel (Gen. 32:24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. 5:13, 15), of the Angel of the Lord, were doubtless manifestations of the Divine presence, "foreshadowings of the incarnation," revelations before the "fulness of the time" of the Son of God.

(1.) The existence and orders of angelic beings can only be discovered from the Scriptures. Although the Bible does not treat of this subject specially, yet there are numerous incidental details that furnish us with ample information. Their personal existence is plainly implied in such passages as Gen. 16:7, 10, 11; Judg. 13:1-21; Matt. 28:2-5; Heb. 1:4, etc.

These superior beings are very numerous. "Thousand thousands," etc. (Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26:53; Luke 2:13; Heb. 12:22, 23). They are also spoken of as of different ranks in dignity and power (Zech. 1:9, 11; Dan. 10:13; 12:1; 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 1:9; Eph. 1:21; Col. 1:16).

(2.) As to their nature, they are spirits (Heb. 1:14), like the soul of man, but not incorporeal. Such expressions as "like the angels" (Luke 20:36), and the fact that whenever angels appeared to man it was always in a human form (Gen. 18:2; 19:1, 10; Luke 24:4; Acts 1:10), and the titles that are applied to them ("sons of God," Job 1:6; 38:7; Dan. 3:25; comp. 28) and to men (Luke 3:38), seem all to indicate some resemblance between them and the human race. Imperfection is ascribed to them as creatures (Job 4:18; Matt. 24:36; 1 Pet. 1:12). As finite creatures they may fall under temptation; and accordingly we read of "fallen angels." Of the cause and manner of their "fall" we are wholly ignorant. We know only that "they left their first estate" (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7,9), and that they are "reserved unto judgement" (2 Pet. 2:4). When the manna is called "angels' food," this is merely to denote its excellence (Ps. 78:25). Angels never die (Luke 20:36). They are possessed of superhuman intelligence and power (Mark 13:32; 2 Thess. 1:7; Ps. 103:20). They are called "holy" (Luke 9:26), "elect" (1 Tim. 5:21). The redeemed in glory are "like unto the angels" (Luke 20:36). They are not to be worshipped (Col. 2:18; Rev. 19:10).

(3.) Their functions are manifold. (a) In the widest sense they are agents of God's providence (Ex. 12:23; Ps. 104:4; Heb. 11:28; 1 Cor. 10:10; 2 Sam. 24:16; 1 Chr. 21:16; 2 Kings 19:35; Acts 12:23). (b) They are specially God's agents in carrying on his great work of redemption. There is no notice of angelic appearances to man till after the call of Abraham. From that time onward there are frequent references to their ministry on earth (Gen. 18; 19; 24:7, 40; 28:12; 32:1). They appear to rebuke idolatry (Judg. 2:1-4), to call Gideon (Judg. 6:11, 12), and to consecrate Samson (13:3). In the days of the prophets, from Samuel downward, the angels appear only in their behalf (1 Kings 19:5; 2 Kings 6:17; Zech. 1-6; Dan. 4:13, 23; 10:10, 13, 20, 21).

The Incarnation introduces a new era in the ministrations of angels. They come with their Lord to earth to do him service while here. They predict his advent (Matt. 1:20; Luke 1:26-38), minister to him after his temptation and agony (Matt. 4:11; Luke 22:43), and declare his resurrection and ascension (Matt. 28:2-8; John 20:12, 13; Acts 1:10, 11). They are now ministering spirits to the people of God (Heb. 1:14; Ps. 34:7; 91:11; Matt. 18:10; Acts 5:19; 8:26; 10:3; 12:7; 27:23). They rejoice over a penitent sinner (Luke 15:10). They bear the souls of the redeemed to paradise (Luke 16:22); and they will be the ministers of judgement hereafter on the great day (Matt. 13:39, 41, 49; 16:27; 24:31). The passages (Ps. 34:7, Matt. 18:10) usually referred to in support of the idea that every individual has a particular guardian angel have no such meaning. They merely indicate that God employs the ministry of angels to deliver his people from affliction and danger, and that the angels do not think it below their dignity to minister even to children and to the least among Christ's disciples.

The "angel of his presence" (Isa. 63:9. Comp. Ex. 23:20, 21; 32:34; 33:2; Num. 20:16) is probably rightly interpreted of the Messiah as the guide of his people. Others have supposed the expression to refer to Gabriel (Luke 1:19).

Anger - the emotion of instant displeasure on account of something evil that presents itself to our view. In itself it is an original susceptibility of our nature, just as love is, and is not necessarily sinful. It may, however, become sinful when causeless, or excessive, or protracted (Matt. 5:22; Eph. 4:26; Col. 3:8). As ascribed to God, it merely denotes his displeasure with sin and with sinners (Ps. 7:11).

Anim - fountains, a city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:50), now el-Ghuwein, near Eshtemoh, about 10 miles south-west of Hebron.

Animal - an organized living creature endowed with sensation. The Levitical law divided animals into clean and unclean, although the distinction seems to have existed before the Flood (Gen. 7:2). The clean could be offered in sacrifice and eaten. All animals that had not cloven hoofs and did not chew the cud were unclean. The list of clean and unclean quadrupeds is set forth in the Levitical law (Deut. 14:3-20; Lev. 11).

Anise - This word is found only in Matt. 23:23. It is the plant commonly known by the name of dill, the Peucedanum graveolens of the botanist. This name dill is derived from a Norse word which means to soothe, the plant having the carminative property of allaying pain. The common dill, the Anethum graveolens, is an annual growing wild in the cornfields of Spain and Portugal and the south of Europe generally. There is also a species of dill cultivated in Eastern countries known by the name of shubit. It was this species of garden plant of which the Pharisees were in the habit of paying tithes. The Talmud requires that the seeds, leaves, and stem of dill shall pay tithes. It is an umbelliferous plant, very like the caraway, its leaves, which are aromatic, being used in soups and pickles. The proper anise is the Pimpinella anisum.

Anna - grace, an aged widow, the daughter of Phanuel. She was a "prophetess," like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah (2 Chr. 34:22). After seven years of married life her husband died, and during her long widowhood she daily attended the temple services. When she was eighty-four years old, she entered the temple at the moment when the aged Simeon uttered his memorable words of praise and thanks to God that he had fulfilled his ancient promise in sending his Son into the world (Luke 2:36, 37).

Annas - was high priest A.D. 7-14. In A.D. 25 Caiaphas, who had married the daughter of Annas (John 18:13), was raised to that office, and probably Annas was now made president of the Sanhedrim, or deputy or coadjutor of the high priest, and thus was also called high priest along with Caiaphas (Luke 3:2). By the Mosaic law the high-priesthood was held for life (Num. 3:10); and although Annas had been deposed by the Roman procurator, the Jews may still have regarded him as legally the high priest. Our Lord was first brought before Annas, and after a brief questioning of him (John 18:19-23) was sent to Caiaphas, when some members of the Sanhedrim had met, and the first trial of Jesus took place (Matt. 26:57-68). This examination of our Lord before Annas is recorded only by John. Annas was president of the Sanhedrim before which Peter and John were brought (Acts 4:6).

Anoint - The practice of anointing with perfumed oil was common among the Hebrews. (1.) The act of anointing was significant of consecration to a holy or sacred use; hence the anointing of the high priest (Ex. 29:29; Lev. 4:3) and of the sacred vessels (Ex. 30:26). The high priest and the king are thus called "the anointed" (Lev. 4:3, 5, 16; 6:20; Ps. 132:10). Anointing a king was equivalent to crowning him (1 Sam. 16:13; 2 Sam. 2:4, etc.). Prophets were also anointed (1 Kings 19:16; 1 Chr. 16:22; Ps. 105:15). The expression, "anoint the shield" (Isa. 21:5), refers to the custom of rubbing oil on the leather of the shield so as to make it supple and fit for use in war.

(2.) Anointing was also an act of hospitality (Luke 7:38, 46). It was the custom of the Jews in like manner to anoint themselves with oil, as a means of refreshing or invigorating their bodies (Deut. 28:40; Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 104:15, etc.). This custom is continued among the Arabians to the present day.

(3.) Oil was used also for medicinal purposes. It was applied to the sick, and also to wounds (Ps. 109:18; Isa. 1:6; Mark 6:13; James 5:14).

(4.) The bodies of the dead were sometimes anointed (Mark 14:8; Luke 23:56).

(5.) The promised Deliverer is twice called the "Anointed" or Messiah (Ps. 2:2; Dan. 9:25, 26), because he was anointed with the Holy Ghost (Isa. 61:1), figuratively styled the "oil of gladness" (Ps. 45:7; Heb. 1:9). Jesus of Nazareth is this anointed One (John 1:41; Acts 9:22; 17:2, 3; 18:5, 28), the Messiah of the Old Testament.

Ant - (Heb. nemalah, from a word meaning to creep, cut off, destroy), referred to in Prov. 6:6; 30:25, as distinguished for its prudent habits. Many ants in Palestine feed on animal substances, but others draw their nourishment partly or exclusively from vegetables. To the latter class belongs the ant to which Solomon refers. This ant gathers the seeds in the season of ripening, and stores them for future use; a habit that has been observed in ants in Texas, India, and Italy.

Antichrist - against Christ, or an opposition Christ, a rival Christ. The word is used only by the apostle John. Referring to false teachers, he says (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 1:7), "Even now are there many antichrists."

(1.) This name has been applied to the "little horn" of the "king of fierce countenance" (Dan. 7:24, 25; 8:23-25).

(2.) It has been applied also to the "false Christs" spoken of by our Lord (Matt. 24:5, 23, 24).

(3.) To the "man of sin" described by Paul (2 Thess. 2:3, 4, 8-10).

(4.) And to the "beast from the sea" (Rev. 13:1; 17:1-18).

Antioch - (1.) In Syria, on the river Orontes, about 16 miles from the Mediterranean, and some 300 miles north of Jerusalem. It was the metropolis of Syria, and afterwards became the capital of the Roman province in Asia. It ranked third, after Rome and Alexandria, in point of importance, of the cities of the Roman empire. It was called the "first city of the East." Christianity was early introduced into it (Acts 11:19, 21, 24), and the name "Christian" was first applied here to its professors (Acts 11:26). It is intimately connected with the early history of the gospel (Acts 6:5; 11:19, 27, 28, 30; 12:25; 15:22-35; Gal. 2:11, 12). It was the great central point whence missionaries to the Gentiles were sent forth. It was the birth-place of the famous Christian father Chrysostom, who died A.D. 407. It bears the modern name of Antakia, and is now a miserable, decaying Turkish town. Like Philippi, it was raised to the rank of a Roman colony. Such colonies were ruled by "praetors" (R.V. marg., Acts 16:20, 21).

(2.) In the extreme north of Pisidia; was visited by Paul and Barnabas on the first missionary journey (Acts 13:14). Here they found a synagogue and many proselytes. They met with great success in preaching the gospel, but the Jews stirred up a violent opposition against them, and they were obliged to leave the place. On his return, Paul again visited Antioch for the purpose of confirming the disciples (Acts 14:21). It has been identified with the modern Yalobatch, lying to the east of Ephesus.

Antiochus - the name of several Syrian kings from B.C. 280 to B.C. 65. The most notable of these were, (1.) Antiochus the Great, who ascended the throne B.C. 223. He is regarded as the "king of the north" referred to in Dan. 11:13-19. He was succeeded (B.C. 187) by his son, Seleucus Philopater, spoken of by Daniel (11:20) as "a raiser of taxes", in the Revised Version, "one that shall cause an exactor to pass through the glory of the kingdom."

(2.) Antiochus IV., surnamed "Epiphanes" i.e., the Illustrious, succeeded his brother Seleucus (B.C. 175). His career and character are prophetically described by Daniel (11:21-32). He was a "vile person." In a spirit of revenge he organized an expedition against Jerusalem, which he destroyed, putting vast multitudes of its inhabitants to death in the most cruel manner. From this time the Jews began the great war of independence under their heroic Maccabean leaders with marked success, defeating the armies of Antiochus that were sent against them. Enraged at this, Antiochus marched against them in person, threatening utterly to exterminate the nation; but on the way he was suddenly arrested by the hand of death (B.C. 164).

Antipas - (1.) Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great by his Samaritan wife Malthace. He was tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea during the whole period of our Lord's life on earth (Luke 23:7). He was a frivolous and vain prince, and was chargeable with many infamous crimes (Mark 8:15; Luke 3:19; 13:31, 32). He beheaded John the Baptist (Matt. 14:1-12) at the instigation of Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod-Philip, whom he had married. Pilate sent Christ to him when he was at Jerusalem at the Passover (Luke 23:7). He asked some idle questions of him, and after causing him to be mocked, sent him back again to Pilate. The wife of Chuza, his house-steward, was one of our Lord's disciples (Luke 8:3).

(2.) A "faithful martyr" (Rev. 2:13), of whom nothing more is certainly known.

Antipatris - a city built by Herod the Great, and called by this name in honour of his father, Antipater. It lay between Caesarea and Lydda, two miles inland, on the great Roman road from Caesarea to Jerusalem. To this place Paul was brought by night (Acts 23:31) on his way to Caesarea, from which it was distant 28 miles. It is identified with the modern, Ras-el-Ain, where rise the springs of Aujeh, the largest springs in Palestine.

Antonia - a fortress in Jerusalem, at the north-west corner of the temple area. It is called "the castle" (Acts 21:34, 37). From the stairs of this castle Paul delivered his famous speech to the multitude in the area below (Acts 22:1-21). It was originally a place in which were kept the vestments of the high priest. Herod fortified it, and called it Antonia in honour of his friend Mark Antony. It was of great size, and commanded the temple. It was built on a plateau of rock, separated on the north from the hill Bezetha by a ditch about 30 feet deep and 165 feet wide.

Antothite - an inhabitant of Anathoth, found only in 1 Chr. 11:28; 12:3. In 2 Sam. 23:27 it is Anethothite; in 1 Chr. 27:12, Anetothite. (R.V., "Anathothite.")

Anvil - the rendering of the Hebrew word , "beaten," found only in Isa. 41:7.

Ape - an animal of the monkey tribe (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21). It was brought from India by the fleets of Solomon and Hiram, and was called by the Hebrews koph_, and by the Greeks _kepos, both words being just the Indian Tamil name of the monkey, kapi, i.e., swift, nimble, active. No species of ape has ever been found in Palestine or the adjacent regions.

Apelles - a Christian at Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16:10), and styles "approved in Christ."

Apharsachites - a company of the colonists whom the Assyrian king planted in Samaria (Ezra 5:6; 6:6).

Apharsites - another of the tribes removed to Samaria (Ezra 4:9), or perhaps the same as the preceding.

Aphik - (Judg. 1:31); Aphek (Josh. 13:4; 19:30), stronghold. (1.) A city of the tribe of Asher. It was the scene of the licentious worship of the Syrian Aphrodite. The ruins of the temple, "magnificent ruins" in a "spot of strange wildness and beauty", are still seen at Afka, on the north-west slopes of Lebanon, near the source of the river Adonis (now Nahr Ibrahim), 12 miles east of Gebal.

(2.) A city of the tribe of Issachar, near to Jezreel (1 Sam. 4:1; 29:1; comp. 28:4).

(3.) A town on the road from Damascus to Palestine, in the level plain east of Jordan, near which Benhadad was defeated by the Israelites (1 Kings 20:26, 30; 2 Kings 13:17). It has been identified with the modern Fik, 6 miles east of the Sea of Galilee, opposite Tiberias.

Apocalypse - the Greek name of the Book of Revelation (q.v.).

Apocrypha - hidden, spurious, the name given to certain ancient books which found a place in the LXX. and Latin Vulgate versions of the Old Testament, and were appended to all the great translations made from them in the sixteenth century, but which have no claim to be regarded as in any sense parts of the inspired Word.

(1.) They are not once quoted by the New Testament writers, who frequently quote from the LXX. Our Lord and his apostles confirmed by their authority the ordinary Jewish canon, which was the same in all respects as we now have it.

(2.) These books were written not in Hebrew but in Greek, and during the "period of silence," from the time of Malachi, after which oracles and direct revelations from God ceased till the Christian era.

(3.) The contents of the books themselves show that they were no part of Scripture. The Old Testament Apocrypha consists of fourteen books, the chief of which are the Books of the Maccabees (q.v.), the Books of Esdras, the Book of Wisdom, the Book of Baruch, the Book of Esther, Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Judith, etc.

The New Testament Apocrypha consists of a very extensive literature, which bears distinct evidences of its non-apostolic origin, and is utterly unworthy of regard.

Apollonia - a city of Macedonia between Amphipolis and Thessalonica, from which it was distant about 36 miles. Paul and Silas passed through it on their way to Thessalonica (Acts 17:1).

Apollos - a Jew "born at Alexandria," a man well versed in the Scriptures and eloquent (Acts 18:24; R.V., "learned"). He came to Ephesus (about A.D. 49), where he spake "boldly" in the synagogue (18:26), although he did not know as yet that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. Aquila and Priscilla instructed him more perfectly in "the way of God", i.e., in the knowledge of Christ. He then proceeded to Corinth, where he met Paul (Acts 18:27; 19:1). He was there very useful in watering the good seed Paul had sown (1 Cor. 1:12), and in gaining many to Christ. His disciples were much attached to him (1 Cor. 3:4-7, 22). He was with Paul at Ephesus when he wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians; and Paul makes kindly reference to him in his letter to Titus (3:13). Some have supposed, although without sufficient ground, that he was the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

Apollyon - destroyer, the name given to the king of the hosts represented by the locusts (Rev. 9:11). It is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Abaddon (q.v.).

Apostle - a person sent by another; a messenger; envoy. This word is once used as a descriptive designation of Jesus Christ, the Sent of the Father (Heb. 3:1; John 20:21). It is, however, generally used as designating the body of disciples to whom he intrusted the organization of his church and the dissemination of his gospel, "the twelve," as they are called (Matt. 10:1-5; Mark 3:14; 6:7; Luke 6:13; 9:1). We have four lists of the apostles, one by each of the synoptic evangelists (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:16; Luke 6:14), and one in the Acts (1:13). No two of these lists, however, perfectly coincide.

Our Lord gave them the "keys of the kingdom," and by the gift of his Spirit fitted them to be the founders and governors of his church (John 14:16, 17, 26; 15:26, 27; 16:7-15). To them, as representing his church, he gave the commission to "preach the gospel to every creature" (Matt. 28:18-20). After his ascension he communicated to them, according to his promise, supernatural gifts to qualify them for the discharge of their duties (Acts 2:4; 1 Cor. 2:16; 2:7, 10, 13; 2 Cor. 5:20; 1 Cor. 11:2). Judas Iscariot, one of "the twelve," fell by transgression, and Matthias was substituted in his place (Acts 1:21). Saul of Tarsus was afterwards added to their number (Acts 9:3-20; 20:4; 26:15-18; 1 Tim. 1:12; 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11).

Luke has given some account of Peter, John, and the two Jameses (Acts 12:2, 17; 15:13; 21:18), but beyond this we know nothing from authentic history of the rest of the original twelve. After the martyrdom of James the Greater (Acts 12:2), James the Less usually resided at Jerusalem, while Paul, "the apostle of the uncircumcision," usually travelled as a missionary among the Gentiles (Gal. 2:8). It was characteristic of the apostles and necessary (1) that they should have seen the Lord, and been able to testify of him and of his resurrection from personal knowledge (John 15:27; Acts 1:21, 22; 1 Cor. 9:1; Acts 22:14, 15). (2.) They must have been immediately called to that office by Christ (Luke 6:13; Gal. 1:1). (3.) It was essential that they should be infallibly inspired, and thus secured against all error and mistake in their public teaching, whether by word or by writing (John 14:26; 16:13; 1 Thess. 2:13).

(4.) Another qualification was the power of working miracles (Mark 16:20; Acts 2:43; 1 Cor. 12:8-11). The apostles therefore could have had no successors. They are the only authoritative teachers of the Christian doctrines. The office of an apostle ceased with its first holders.

In 2 Cor. 8:23 and Phil. 2:25 the word "messenger" is the rendering of the same Greek word, elsewhere rendered "apostle."

Apothecary - rendered in the margin and the Revised Version "perfumer," in Ex. 30:25; 37:29; Eccl. 10:1. The holy oils and ointments were prepared by priests properly qualified for this office. The feminine plural form of the Hebrew word is rendered "confectionaries" in 1 Sam. 8:13.

Apparel - In Old Testament times the distinction between male and female attire was not very marked. The statute forbidding men to wear female apparel (Deut. 22:5) referred especially to ornaments and head-dresses. Both men and women wore (1) an under garment or tunic, which was bound by a girdle. One who had only this tunic on was spoken of as "naked" (1 Sam. 19:24; Job 24:10; Isa. 20:2). Those in high stations sometimes wore two tunics, the outer being called the "upper garment" (1 Sam. 15:27; 18:4; 24:5; Job 1:20). (2.) They wore in common an over-garment ("mantle," Isa. 3:22; 1 Kings 19:13; 2 Kings 2:13), a loose and flowing robe. The folds of this upper garment could be formed into a lap (Ruth 3:15; Ps. 79:12; Prov. 17:23; Luke 6:38). Generals of armies usually wore scarlet robes (Judg. 8:26; Nah. 2:3). A form of conspicuous raiment is mentioned in Luke 20:46; comp. Matt. 23:5.

Priests alone wore trousers. Both men and women wore turbans. Kings and nobles usually had a store of costly garments for festive occasions (Isa. 3:22; Zech. 3:4) and for presents (Gen. 45:22; Esther 4:4; 6:8, 11; 1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Kings 5:5; 10:22). Prophets and ascetics wore coarse garments (Isa. 20:2; Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4).

Appeal - a reference of any case from an inferior to a superior court. Moses established in the wilderness a series of judicatories such that appeals could be made from a lower to a higher (Ex. 18:13-26.)

Under the Roman law the most remarkable case of appeal is that of Paul from the tribunal of Festus at Caesarea to that of the emperor at Rome (Acts 25:11, 12, 21, 25). Paul availed himself of the privilege of a Roman citizen in this matter.

Apphia - increasing, a female Christian at Colosse (Philemon 1:2), supposed by some to have been the wife of Philemon.

Appii Forum - i.e., "the market of Appius" (Acts 28:15, R.V.), a town on the road, the "Appian Way," from Rome to Brundusium. It was 43 miles from Rome. Here Paul was met by some Roman Christians on his way to the capital. It was natural that they should halt here and wait for him, because from this place there were two ways by which travellers might journey to Rome.

Apple - (Heb. tappuah, meaning "fragrance"). Probably the apricot or quince is intended by the word, as Palestine was too hot for the growth of apples proper. It is enumerated among the most valuable trees of Palestine (Joel 1:12), and frequently referred to in Canticles, and noted for its beauty (2:3, 5; 8:5). There is nothing to show that it was the "tree of the knowledge of good and evil." Dr. Tristram has suggested that the apricot has better claims than any other fruit-tree to be the apple of Scripture. It grows to a height of 30 feet, has a roundish mass of glossy leaves, and bears an orange coloured fruit that gives out a delicious perfume. The "apple of the eye" is the Heb. ishon, meaning manikin, i.e., the pupil of the eye (Prov. 7:2). (Comp. the promise, Zech. 2:8; the prayer, Ps. 17:8; and its fulfilment, Deut. 32:10.)

The so-called "apple of Sodom" some have supposed to be the Solanum sanctum (Heb. hedek), rendered "brier" (q.v.) in Micah 7:4, a thorny plant bearing fruit like the potato-apple. This shrub abounds in the Jordan valley. (See ENGEDI.)

Apron - found in the Authorized Version in Gen. 3:7, of the bands of fig-leaves made by our first parents. In Acts 19:12, it denotes the belt or half-girdle worn by artisans and servants round the waist for the purpose of preserving the clothing from injury. In marg. of Authorized Version, Ruth 3:15, correctly rendered instead of "vail." (R.V., "mantle.")

Aquila - eagle, a native of Pontus, by occupation a tent-maker, whom Paul met on his first visit to Corinth (Acts 18:2). Along with his wife Priscilla he had fled from Rome in consequence of a decree (A.D. 50) by Claudius commanding all Jews to leave the city. Paul sojourned with him at Corinth, and they wrought together at their common trade, making Cilician hair-cloth for tents. On Paul's departure from Corinth after eighteen months, Aquila and his wife accompanied him to Ephesus, where they remained, while he proceeded to Syria (Acts 18:18, 26). When they became Christians we are not informed, but in Ephesus they were (1 Cor. 16:19) Paul's "helpers in Christ Jesus." We find them afterwards at Rome (Rom. 16:3), interesting themselves still in the cause of Christ. They are referred to some years after this as being at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4:19). This is the last notice we have of them.

Arab - ambush, a city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:52), now Er-Rabiyeh.

Arabah - plain, in the Revised Version of 2 Kings 14:25; Josh. 3:16; 8:14; 2 Sam. 2:29; 4:7 (in all these passages the A.V. has "plain"); Amos 6:14 (A.V. "wilderness"). This word is found in the Authorized Version only in Josh. 18:18. It denotes the hollow depression through which the Jordan flows from the Lake of Galilee to the Dead Sea. It is now called by the Arabs el-Ghor. But the Ghor is sometimes spoken of as extending 10 miles south of the Dead Sea, and thence to the Gulf of Akabah on the Red Sea is called the Wady el-Arabah.

Arabia - arid, an extensive region in the south-west of Asia. It is bounded on the west by the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the east by the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates. It extends far into the north in barren deserts, meeting those of Syria and Mesopotamia. It is one of the few countries of the world from which the original inhabitants have never been expelled.

It was anciently divided into three parts:, (1.) Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia), so called from its fertility. It embraced a large portion of the country now known by the name of Arabia. The Arabs call it Yemen. It lies between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. (2.) Arabia Deserta, the el-Badieh or "Great Wilderness" of the Arabs. From this name is derived that which is usually given to the nomadic tribes which wander over this region, the "Bedaween," or, more generally, "Bedouin," (3.) Arabia Petraea, i.e., the Rocky Arabia, so called from its rocky mountains and stony plains. It comprehended all the north-west portion of the country, and is much better known to travellers than any other portion. This country is, however, divided by modern geographers into (1) Arabia Proper, or the Arabian Peninsula; (2) Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert; and (3) Western Arabia, which includes the peninsula of Sinai and the Desert of Petra, originally inhabited by the Horites (Gen. 14:6, etc.), but in later times by the descendants of Esau, and known as the Land of Edom or Idumea, also as the Desert of Seir or Mount Seir.

The whole land appears (Gen. 10) to have been inhabited by a variety of tribes of different lineage, Ishmaelites, Arabians, Idumeans, Horites, and Edomites; but at length becoming amalgamated, they came to be known by the general designation of Arabs. The modern nation of Arabs is predominantly Ishmaelite. Their language is the most developed and the richest of all the Semitic languages, and is of great value to the student of Hebrew.

The Israelites wandered for forty years in Arabia. In the days of Solomon, and subsequently, commercial intercourse was to a considerable extent kept up with this country (1 Kings 10:15; 2 Chr. 9:14; 17:11). Arabians were present in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:11). Paul retired for a season into Arabia after his conversion (Gal. 1:17). This country is frequently referred to by the prophets (Isa. 21:11; 42:11; Jer. 25:24, etc.)

Arad - (1.) Now Tell Arad, a Canaanite city, about 20 miles south of Hebron. The king of Arad "fought against Israel and took of them prisoners" when they were retreating from the confines of Edom (Num. 21:1; 33:40; Judg. 1:16). It was finally subdued by Joshua (12:14).

(2.) One of the sons of Beriah (1 Chr. 8:15).

Aram - the son of Shem (Gen. 10:22); according to Gen. 22:21, a grandson of Nahor. In Matt. 1:3, 4, and Luke 3:33, this word is the Greek form of Ram, the father of Amminadab (1 Chr. 2:10).

The word means high, or highlands, and as the name of a country denotes that elevated region extending from the northeast of Palestine to the Euphrates. It corresponded generally with the Syria and Mesopotamia of the Greeks and Romans. In Gen. 25:20; 31:20, 24; Deut. 26:5, the word "Syrian" is properly "Aramean" (R.V., marg.). Damascus became at length the capital of the several smaller kingdoms comprehended under the designation "Aram" or "Syria."

Aram-naharaim - Aram of the two rivers, is Mesopotamia (as it is rendered in Gen. 24:10), the country enclosed between the Tigris on the east and the Euphrates on the west (Ps. 60, title); called also the "field of Aram" (Hos. 12:12, R.V.) i.e., the open country of Aram; in the Authorized Version, "country of Syria." Padan-aram (q.v.) was a portion of this country.

Aram-zobah - (Ps. 60, title), probably the region between the Euphrates and the Orontes.

Aran - wild goat, a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gen. 36:28).

Ararat - sacred land or high land, the name of a country on one of the mountains of which the ark rested after the Flood subsided (Gen. 8:4). The "mountains" mentioned were probably the Kurdish range of South Armenia. In 2 Kings 19:37, Isa. 37:38, the word is rendered "Armenia" in the Authorized Version, but in the Revised Version, "Land of Ararat." In Jer. 51:27, the name denotes the central or southern portion of Armenia. It is, however, generally applied to a high and almost inaccessible mountain which rises majestically from the plain of the Araxes. It has two conical peaks, about 7 miles apart, the one 14,300 feet and the other 10,300 feet above the level of the plain. Three thousand feet of the summit of the higher of these peaks is covered with perpetual snow. It is called Kuh-i-nuh, i.e., "Noah's mountain", by the Persians. This part of Armenia was inhabited by a people who spoke a language unlike any other now known, though it may have been related to the modern Georgian. About B.C. 900 they borrowed the cuneiform characters of Nineveh, and from this time we have inscriptions of a line of kings who at times contended with Assyria. At the close of the seventh century B.C. the kingdom of Ararat came to an end, and the country was occupied by a people who are ancestors of the Armenians of the present day.

Araunah - agile; also called Ornan 1 Chr. 21:15, a Jebusite who dwelt in Jerusalem before it was taken by the Israelites. The destroying angel, sent to punish David for his vanity in taking a census of the people, was stayed in his work of destruction near a threshing-floor belonging to Araunah which was situated on Mount Moriah. Araunah offered it to David as a free gift, together with the oxen and the threshing instruments; but the king insisted on purchasing it at its full price (2 Sam. 24:24; 1 Chr. 21:24, 25), for, according to the law of sacrifices, he could not offer to God what cost him nothing. On the same place Solomon afterwards erected the temple (2 Sam. 24:16; 2 Chr. 3:1). (See ALTAR.)

Arba - four, a giant, father of Anak. From him the city of Hebron derived its name of Kirjath-arba, i.e., the city of Araba (Josh. 14:15; 15:13; 21:11; Gen. 13:18; 23:2). (See HEBRON.)

Arbathite - a name given to Abi-albon, or, as elsewhere called, Abiel, one of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23:31; 1 Chr. 11:32), probably as being an inhabitant of Arabah (Josh. 15:61), a town in the wilderness of Judah.

Arch - an architectural term found only in Ezek. 40:16, 21, 22, 26, 29. There is no absolute proof that the Israelites employed arches in their buildings. The arch was employed in the building of the pyramids of Egypt. The oldest existing arch is at Thebes, and bears the date B.C. 1350. There are also still found the remains of an arch, known as Robinson's Arch, of the bridge connecting Zion and Moriah. (See TYROPOEON VALLEY.)

Archangel - (1Thess. 4:16; Jude 1:9), the prince of the angels.

Archelaus - ruler of the people, son of Herod the Great, by Malthace, a Samaritan woman. He was educated along with his brother Antipas at Rome. He inherited from his father a third part of his kingdom viz., Idumea, Judea, and Samaria, and hence is called "king" (Matt. 2:22). It was for fear of him that Joseph and Mary turned aside on their way back from Egypt. Till a few days before his death Herod had named Antipas as his successor, but in his last moments he named Archelaus.

Archer - a shooter with the bow (1 Chr. 10:3). This art was of high antiquity (Gen. 21:20; 27:3). Saul was wounded by the Philistine archers (1 Sam. 31:3). The phrase "breaking the bow" (Hos. 1:5; Jer. 49:35) is equivalent to taking away one's power, while "strengthening the bow" is a symbol of its increase (Gen. 49:24). The Persian archers were famous among the ancients (Isa. 13:18; Jer. 49:35; 50:9, 14, 29, 42. (See BOW ¯T0000631).

Archevite - one of the nations planted by the Assyrians in Samaria (Ezra 4:9); the men of Erech.

Archi - a city on the boundary of Ephraim and Benjamin (Josh. 16:2), between Bethel and Beth-horon the nether.

Archippus - master of the horse, a "fellow-soldier" of Paul's (Philemon 1:2), whom he exhorts to renewed activity (Col. 4:17). He was a member of Philemon's family, probably his son.

Archite - the usual designation of Hushai (2 Sam. 15:32; 17:5, 14; 1 Chr. 27:33), who was a native of Archi. He was "the king's friend", i.e., he held office under David similar to that of our modern privy councillor.

Arcturus - bear-keeper, the name given by the ancients to the brightest star in the constellation Bootes. In the Authorized Version (Job 9:9; 38:32) it is the rendering of the Hebrew word 'ash, which probably designates the constellation the Great Bear. This word ('ash) is supposed to be derived from an Arabic word meaning night-watcher, because the Great Bear always revolves about the pole, and to our nothern hemisphere never sets.

Ard - descent, a grandson of Benjamin (Num. 26:38-40). In 1 Chr. 8:3 he is called Addar. His descendants are mentioned in Num. 26:40.

Ardon - descendant, the last of the three sons of Caleb by his first wife Azubah (1 Chr. 2:18).

Areopagite - a member of the court of Areopagus (Acts 17:34).

Areopagus - the Latin form of the Greek word rendered "Mars' hill." But it denotes also the council or court of justice which met in the open air on the hill. It was a rocky height to the west of the Acropolis at Athens, on the south-east summit of which the council was held which was constituted by Solon, and consisted of nine archons or chief magistrates who were then in office, and the ex-archons of blameless life.

On this hill of Mars (Gr. Ares) Paul delivered his memorable address to the "men of Athens" (Acts 17:22-31).

Aretas - the father-in-law of Herod Antipas, and king of Arabia Petraea. His daughter returned to him on the occasion of her husband's entering into an adulterous alliance with Herodias, the wife of Herod-Philip, his half-brother (Luke 3:19, 20; Mark 6:17; Matt. 14:3). This led to a war between Aretas and Herod Antipas. Herod's army was wholly destroyed (A.D. 36). Aretas, taking advantage of the complications of the times on account of the death of the Emperor Tiberius (A.D. 37), took possession of Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32; comp. Acts 9:25). At this time Paul returned to Damascus from Arabia.

Argob - stony heap, an "island," as it has been called, of rock about 30 miles by 20, rising 20 or 30 feet above the table-land of Bashan; a region of crags and chasms wild and rugged in the extreme. On this "island" stood sixty walled cities, ruled over by Og. It is called Trachonitis ("the rugged region") in the New Testament (Luke 3:1). These cities were conquered by the Israelites (Deut. 3:4; 1 Kings 4:13). It is now called the Lejah. Here "sixty walled cities are still traceable in a space of 308 square miles. The architecture is ponderous and massive. Solid walls 4 feet thick, and stones on one another without cement; the roofs enormous slabs of basaltic rock, like iron; the doors and gates are of stone 18 inches thick, secured by ponderous bars. The land bears still the appearance of having been called the 'land of giants' under the giant Og." "I have more than once entered a deserted city in the evening, taken possession of a comfortable house, and spent the night in peace. Many of the houses in the ancient cities of Bashan are perfect, as if only finished yesterday. The walls are sound, the roofs unbroken, and even the window-shutters in their places. These ancient cities of Bashan probably contain the very oldest specimens of domestic architecture in the world" (Porter's Giant Cities). (See BASHAN.)

Arieh - the lion, the name of one of the body-guard slain with Pekahiah at Samaria (2 Kings 15:25) by the conspirator Pekah.

Ariel - the lion of God. (1.) One of the chief men sent by Ezra to procure Levites for the sanctuary (Ezra 8:16).

(2.) A symbolic name for Jerusalem (Isa. 29:1, 2, 7) as "victorious under God," and in Ezek. 43:15, 16, for the altar (marg., Heb. 'ariel) of burnt offerings, the secret of Israel's lion-like strength.

Arimathea - a "city of the Jews" (Luke 23:51), the birth-place of Joseph in whose sepulchre our Lord was laid (Matt. 27:57, 60; John 19:38). It is probably the same place as Ramathaim in Ephraim, and the birth-place of Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1, 19). Others identify it with Ramleh in Dan, or Rama (q.v.) in Benjamin (Matt. 2:18).

Arioch - lion-like, venerable. (1.) A king of Ellasar who was confederate with Chedorlamer (Gen. 14:1,9). The tablets recently discovered by Mr. Pinches (see CHALDEA ¯T0000758) show the true reading is Eri-Aku of Larsa. This Elamite name meant "servant of the moon-god." It was afterwards changed into Rimsin, "Have mercy, O moon-god." (2.) Dan. 2:14.

Aristarchus - best ruler, native of Thessalonica (Acts 20:4), a companion of Paul (Acts 19:29; 27:2). He was Paul's "fellow-prisoner" at Rome (Col. 4:10; Philemon 1:24).

Aristobulus - a Roman mentioned in Paul's Epistle to the Romans (16:10), whose "household" is saluated.

Ark - Noah's ark, a building of gopher-wood, and covered with pitch, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad, and 30 cubits high (Gen. 6:14-16); an oblong floating house of three stories, with a door in the side and a window in the roof. It was 100 years in building (Gen. 5:32; 7:6). It was intended to preserve certain persons and animals from the deluge which God was about to bring over the earth. It contained eight persons (Gen. 7:13; 2 Pet. 2:5), and of all "clean" animals seven pairs, and of "unclean" one pair, and of birds seven pairs of each sort (Gen. 7:2, 3). It was in the form of an oblong square, with flat bottom and sloping roof. Traditions of the Deluge, by which the race of man was swept from the earth, and of the ark of Noah have been found existing among all nations.

The ark of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid (Ex. 2:3) is called in the Hebrew teebah, a word derived from the Egyptian teb, meaning "a chest." It was daubed with slime and with pitch. The bulrushes of which it was made were the papyrus reed.

The sacred ark is designated by a different Hebrew word, 'aron', which is the common name for a chest or coffer used for any purpose (Gen. 50:26; 2 Kings 12:9, 10). It is distinguished from all others by such titles as the "ark of God" (1 Sam. 3:3), "ark of the covenant" (Josh. 3:6; Heb. 9:4), "ark of the testimony" (Ex. 25:22). It was made of acacia or shittim wood, a cubit and a half broad and high and two cubits long, and covered all over with the purest gold. Its upper surface or lid, the mercy-seat, was surrounded with a rim of gold; and on each of the two sides were two gold rings, in which were placed two gold-covered poles by which the ark could be carried (Num. 7:9; 10:21; 4:5,19, 20; 1 Kings 8:3, 6). Over the ark, at the two extremities, were two cherubim, with their faces turned toward each other (Lev. 16:2; Num. 7:89). Their outspread wings over the top of the ark formed the throne of God, while the ark itself was his footstool (Ex. 25:10-22; 37:1-9). The ark was deposited in the "holy of holies," and was so placed that one end of the poles by which it was carried touched the veil which separated the two apartments of the tabernacle (1 Kings 8:8). The two tables of stone which constituted the "testimony" or evidence of God's covenant with the people (Deut. 31:26), the "pot of manna" (Ex. 16:33), and "Aaron's rod that budded" (Num. 17:10), were laid up in the ark (Heb. 9:4). (See TABERNACLE ¯T0003559) The ark and the sanctuary were "the beauty of Israel" (Lam. 2:1). During the journeys of the Israelites the ark was carried by the priests in advance of the host (Num. 4:5, 6; 10:33-36; Ps. 68:1; 132:8). It was borne by the priests into the bed of the Jordan, which separated, opening a pathway for the whole of the host to pass over (Josh. 3:15, 16; 4:7, 10, 11, 17, 18). It was borne in the procession round Jericho (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8, 11, 12). When carried it was always wrapped in the veil, the badgers' skins, and blue cloth, and carefully concealed even from the eyes of the Levites who carried it. After the settlement of Israel in Palestine the ark remained in the tabernacle at Gilgal for a season, and was then removed to Shiloh till the time of Eli, between 300 and 400 years (Jer. 7:12), when it was carried into the field of battle so as to secure, as they supposed, victory to the Hebrews, and was taken by the Philistines (1 Sam. 4:3-11), who sent it back after retaining it seven months (1 Sam. 5:7, 8). It remained then at Kirjath-jearim (7:1,2) till the time of David (twenty years), who wished to remove it to Jerusalem; but the proper mode of removing it having been neglected, Uzzah was smitten with death for putting "forth his hand to the ark of God," and in consequence of this it was left in the house of Obed-edom in Gath-rimmon for three months (2 Sam. 6:1-11), at the end of which time David removed it in a grand procession to Jerusalem, where it was kept till a place was prepared for it (12-19). It was afterwards deposited by Solomon in the temple (1 Kings 8:6-9). When the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the temple, the ark was probably taken away by Nebuchadnezzar and destroyed, as no trace of it is afterwards to be found. The absence of the ark from the second temple was one of the points in which it was inferior to the first temple.

Arkite - (Gen. 10:17; 1 Chr. 1:15), a designation of certain descendants from the Phoenicians or Sidonians, the inhabitants of Arka, 12 miles north of Tripoli, opposite the northern extremity of Lebanon.

Arm - used to denote power (Ps. 10:15; Ezek. 30:21; Jer. 48:25). It is also used of the omnipotence of God (Ex. 15:16; Ps. 89:13; 98:1; 77:15; Isa. 53:1; John 12:38; Acts 13:17)

Armageddon - occurs only in Rev. 16:16 (R.V., "Har-Magedon"), as symbolically designating the place where the "battle of that great day of God Almighty" (ver. 14) shall be fought. The word properly means the "mount of Megiddo." It is the scene of the final conflict between Christ and Antichrist. The idea of such a scene was suggested by the Old Testament great battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon (q.v.).

Armenia - high land, occurs only in Authorized Version, 2 Kings 19:37; in Revised Version, "Ararat," which is the Hebrew word. A country in western Asia lying between the Caspian and the Black Sea. Here the ark of Noah rested after the Deluge (Gen. 8:4). It is for the most part high table-land, and is watered by the Aras, the Kur, the Euphrates, and the Tigris. Ararat was properly the name of a part of ancient Armenia. Three provinces of Armenia are mentioned in Jer. 51:27, Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz. Some, however, think Minni a contraction for Armenia. (See ARARAT.)

Armoni - inhabitant of a fortress, the first-named of the two sons of Saul and Rizpah. He was delivered up to the Gibeonites by David, and hanged by them (2 Sam. 21:8, 9).

Armour - is employed in the English Bible to denote military equipment, both offensive and defensive.

(1.) The offensive weapons were different at different periods of history. The "rod of iron" (Ps. 2:9) is supposed to mean a mace or crowbar, an instrument of great power when used by a strong arm. The "maul" (Prov. 25:18; cognate Hebrew word rendered "battle-axe" in Jer. 51:20, and "slaughter weapon" in Ezek. 9:2) was a war-hammer or martel. The "sword" is the usual translation of hereb, which properly means "poniard." The real sword, as well as the dirk-sword (which was always double-edged), was also used (1 Sam. 17:39; 2 Sam. 20:8; 1 Kings 20:11). The spear was another offensive weapon (Josh. 8:18; 1 Sam. 17:7). The javelin was used by light troops (Num. 25:7, 8; 1 Sam. 13:22). Saul threw a javelin at David (1 Sam. 19:9, 10), and so virtually absolved him from his allegiance. The bow was, however, the chief weapon of offence. The arrows were carried in a quiver, the bow being always unbent till the moment of action (Gen. 27:3; 48:22; Ps. 18:34). The sling was a favourite weapon of the Benjamites (1 Sam. 17:40; 1 Chr. 12:2. Comp. 1 Sam. 25:29).

(2.) Of the defensive armour a chief place is assigned to the shield or buckler. There were the great shield or target (the tzinnah), for the protection of the whole person (Gen. 15:1; Ps. 47:9; 1 Sam. 17:7; Prov. 30:5), and the buckler (Heb. mageen) or small shield (1 Kings 10:17; Ezek. 26:8). In Ps. 91:4 "buckler" is properly a roundel appropriated to archers or slingers. The helmet (Ezek. 27:10; 1 Sam. 17:38), a covering for the head; the coat of mail or corselet (1 Sam. 17:5), or habergeon (Neh. 4;16), harness or breat-plate (Rev. 9:9), for the covering of the back and breast and both upper arms (Isa. 59:17; Eph. 6:14). The cuirass and corselet, composed of leather or quilted cloth, were also for the covering of the body. Greaves, for the covering of the legs, were worn in the time of David (1 Sam. 17:6). Reference is made by Paul (Eph. 6:14-17) to the panoply of a Roman soldier. The shield here is the thureon, a door-like oblong shield above all, i.e., covering the whole person, not the small round shield. There is no armour for the back, but only for the front.

Armour-bearer - an officer selected by kings and generals because of his bravery, not only to bear their armour, but also to stand by them in the time of danger. They were the adjutants of our modern armies (Judg. 9:54; 1 Sam. 14:7; 16:21; 31:6).

Armoury - the place in which armour was deposited when not used (Neh. 3:19; Jer. 50:25). At first each man of the Hebrews had his own arms, because all went to war. There were no arsenals or magazines for arms till the time of David, who had a large collection of arms, which he consecrated to the Lord in his tabernacle (1 Sa,. 21:9; 2 Sam. 8:7-12; 1 Chr. 26:26, 27).

Army - The Israelites marched out of Egypt in military order (Ex. 13:18, "harnessed;" marg., "five in a rank"). Each tribe formed a battalion, with its own banner and leader (Num. 2:2; 10:14). In war the army was divided into thousands and hundreds under their several captains (Num. 31:14), and also into families (Num. 2:34; 2 Chr. 25:5; 26:12). From the time of their entering the land of Canaan to the time of the kings, the Israelites made little progress in military affairs, although often engaged in warfare. The kings introduced the custom of maintaining a bodyguard (the Gibborim; i.e., "heroes"), and thus the nucleus of a standing army was formed. Saul had an army of 3,000 select warriors (1 Sam. 13:2; 14:52; 24:2). David also had a band of soldiers around him (1 Sam. 23:13; 25:13). To this band he afterwards added the Cherethites and the Pelethites (2 Sam. 15:18; 20:7). At first the army consisted only of infantry (1 Sam. 4:10; 15:4), as the use of horses was prohibited (Deut. 17:16); but chariots and horses were afterwards added (2 Sam. 8:4; 1 Kings 10:26, 28, 29; 1 Kings 9:19). In 1 Kings 9:22 there is given a list of the various gradations of rank held by those who composed the army. The equipment and maintenance of the army were at the public expense (2 Sam. 17:28, 29; 1 Kings 4:27; 10:16, 17; Judg. 20:10). At the Exodus the number of males above twenty years capable of bearing arms was 600,000 (Ex. 12:37). In David's time it mounted to the number of 1,300,000 (2 Sam. 24:9).

Arnon - swift, the southern boundary of the territory of Israel beyond Jordan, separating it from the land of Moab (Deut. 3:8, 16). This river (referred to twenty-four times in the Bible) rises in the mountains of Gilead, and after a circuitous course of about 80 miles through a deep ravine it falls into the Dead Sea nearly opposite Engedi. The stream is almost dry in summer. It is now called el-Mujeb. The territory of the Amorites extended from the Arnon to the Jabbok.

Aroer - ruins. (1.) A town on the north bank of the Arnon (Deut. 4:48; Judg. 11:26; 2 Kings 10:33), the southern boundary of the kingdom of Sihon (Josh. 12:2). It is now called Arair, 13 miles west of the Dead Sea.

(2.) One of the towns built by the tribe of Gad (Num. 32:34) "before Rabbah" (Josh. 13:25), the Ammonite capital. It was famous in the history of Jephthah (Judg. 11:33) and of David (2 Sam. 24:5). (Comp. Isa. 17:2; 2 Kings 15:29.)

(3.) A city in the south of Judah, 12 miles south-east of Beersheba, to which David sent presents after recovering the spoil from the Amalekites at Ziklag (1 Sam. 30:26, 28). It was the native city of two of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:44). It is now called Ar'arah.

Arpad - (Isa. 10:9; 36:19; 37:13), also Arphad, support, a Syrian city near Hamath, along with which it is invariably mentioned (2 Kings 19:13; 18:34; Isa. 10:9), and Damascus (Jer. 49:23). After a siege of three years it fell (B.C. 742) before the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser II. Now Tell Erfud.

Arphaxad - son of Shem, born the year after the Deluge. He died at the age of 438 years (Gen. 11:10-13; 1 Chr. 1:17, 18; Luke 3:36). He dwelt in Mesopotamia, and became, according to the Jewish historian Josephus, the progenitor of the Chaldeans. The tendency is to recognize in the word the name of the country nearest the ancient domain of the Chaldeans. Some regard the word as an Egypticized form of the territorial name of Ur Kasdim, or Ur of the Chaldees.

Arrows - At first made of reeds, and then of wood tipped with iron. Arrows are sometimes figuratively put for lightning (Deut. 32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 18:14; 144:6; Zech. 9:14). They were used in war as well as in the chase (Gen. 27:3; 49:23). They were also used in divination (Ezek. 21:21).

The word is frequently employed as a symbol of calamity or disease inflicted by God (Job 6:4; 34:6; Ps. 38:2; Deut. 32:23. Comp. Ezek. 5:16), or of some sudden danger (Ps. 91:5), or bitter words (Ps. 64:3), or false testimony (Prov. 25:18).

Artaxerxes - the Greek form of the name of several Persian kings. (1.) The king who obstructed the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 4:7). He was probably the Smerdis of profane history.

(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 7:1, in the seventh year (B.C. 458) of whose reign Ezra led a second colony of Jews back to Jerusalem, was probably Longimanus, who reigned for forty years (B.C. 464-425); the grandson of Darius, who, fourteen years later, permitted Nehemiah to return and rebuild Jerusalem.

Artificer - a person engaged in any kind of manual occupation (Gen. 4:22; Isa. 3:3).

Artillery - 1 Sam. 20:40, (Heb. keli, meaning "apparatus;" here meaning collectively any missile weapons, as arrows and lances. In Revised Version, "weapons"). This word is derived from the Latin artillaria = equipment of war.

Arvad - wandering, (Ezek. 27:8), a small island and city on the coast of Syria, mentioned as furnishing mariners and soldiers for Tyre. The inhabitants were called Arvadites. The name is written Aruada or Arada in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets.

Asa - physician, son of Abijah and grandson of Rehoboam, was the third king of Judah. He was zealous in maintaining the true worship of God, and in rooting all idolatry, with its accompanying immoralities, out of the land (1 Kings 15:8-14). The Lord gave him and his land rest and prosperity. It is recorded of him, however, that in his old age, when afflicted, he "sought not to the Lord, but to the physicians" (comp. Jer. 17:5). He died in the forty-first year of his reign, greatly honoured by his people (2 Chr. 16:1-13), and was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat.

Asahel - made by God, the youngest son of Zeruiah, David's sister. He was celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When fighting against Ish-bosheth at Gibeon, in the army of his brother Joab, he was put to death by Abner, whom he pursued from the field of battle (2 Sam. 2:18, 19). He is mentioned among David's thirty mighty men (2 Sam. 23:24; 1 Chr. 11:26). Others of the same name are mentioned (2 Chr. 17:8; 31:13; Ezra 10:15).

Asaph - convener, or collector. (1.) A Levite; one of the leaders of David's choir (1 Chr. 6:39). Psalms 50 and 73-83 inclusive are attributed to him. He is mentioned along with David as skilled in music, and a "seer" (2 Chr. 29:30). The "sons of Asaph," mentioned in 1 Chr. 25:1, 2 Chr. 20:14, and Ezra 2:41, were his descendants, or more probably a class of poets or singers who recognized him as their master.

(2.) The "recorder" in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:18, 37).

(3.) The "keeper of the king's forest," to whom Nehemiah requested from Artaxerxes a "letter" that he might give him timber for the temple at Jerusalem (Neh. 2:8).

Ascension - See CHRIST.

Asenath - an Egyptian name, meaning "gift of the sun-god", daughter of Potipherah, priest of On or Heliopolis, wife of Joseph (Gen. 41:45). She was the mother of Manasseh and Ephraim (50-52; 46:20).

Ash - (Heb. o'ren, "tremulous"), mentioned only Isa. 44:14 (R.V., "fir tree"). It is rendered "pine tree" both in the LXX. and Vulgate versions. There is a tree called by the Arabs aran, found still in the valleys of Arabia Petraea, whose leaf resembles that of the mountain ash. This may be the tree meant. Our ash tree is not known in Syria.

Ashdod - stronghold, a Philistine city (Josh. 15:47), about midway between Gaza and Joppa, and 3 miles from the Mediterranean. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. 5:5). It belonged to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:47), but it never came into their actual possession. It was an important city, as it stood on the highroad from Egypt to Palestine, and hence was strongly fortified (2 Chr. 26:6; Isa. 20:1). Uzziah took it, but fifty years after his death it was taken by the Assyrians (B.C. 758). According to Sargon's record, it was captured by him in B.C. 711. The only reference to it in the New Testament, where it is called Azotus, is in the account of Philip's return from Gaza (Acts 8:40). It is now called Eshdud.

Ashdoth-pisgah - (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 12:3; 13:20) in Authorized Version, but in Revised Version translated "slopes of Pisgah." In Deut. 4:49 it is translated in the Authorized Version "springs of Pisgah." The name Ashdoth is translated "springs" in the Authorized Version, but "slopes" in the Revised Version, of Josh. 10:40 and 12:8. It has been identified with the springs under Mount Nebo, now called 'Ayun Musa.

Asher - happy, Jacob's eigth son; his mother was Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. 30:13). Of the tribe founded by him nothing is recorded beyond its holding a place in the list of the tribes (35:26; 46:17; Ex. 1:4, etc.) It increased in numbers twenty-nine percent, during the thirty-eight years' wanderings. The place of this tribe during the march through the desert was between Dan and Naphtali (Num. 2:27). The boundaries of the inheritance given to it, which contained some of the richest soil in Palestine, and the names of its towns, are recorded in Josh. 19:24-31; Judg. 1:31, 32. Asher and Simeon were the only tribes west of the Jordan which furnished no hero or judge for the nation. Anna the prophetess was of this tribe (Luke 2:36).

Asherah - and pl. Asherim in Revised Version, instead of "grove" and "groves" of the Authorized Version. This was the name of a sensual Canaanitish goddess Astarte, the feminine of the Assyrian Ishtar. Its symbol was the stem of a tree deprived of its boughs, and rudely shaped into an image, and planted in the ground. Such religious symbols ("groves") are frequently alluded to in Scripture (Ex. 34:13; Judg. 6:25; 2 Kings 23:6; 1 Kings 16:33, etc.). These images were also sometimes made of silver or of carved stone (2 Kings 21:7; "the graven image of Asherah," R.V.). (See GROVE ¯T0001556 [1].).

Ashes - The ashes of a red heifer burned entire (Num. 19:5) when sprinkled on the unclean made them ceremonially clean (Heb. 9:13).

To cover the head with ashes was a token of self-abhorrence and humiliation (2 Sam. 13:19; Esther 4:3; Jer. 6:26, etc.).

To feed on ashes (Isa. 44:20), means to seek that which will prove to be vain and unsatisfactory, and hence it denotes the unsatisfactory nature of idol-worship. (Comp. Hos. 12:1).

Ashkelon - =Askelon=Ascalon, was one of the five cities of the Philistines (Josh. 13:3; 1 Sam. 6:17). It stood on the shore of the Mediterranean, 12 miles north of Gaza. It is mentioned on an inscription at Karnak in Egypt as having been taken by king Rameses II., the oppressor of the Hebrews. In the time of the judges (Judg. 1:18) it fell into the possession of the tribe of Judah; but it was soon after retaken by the Philistines (2 Sam. 1:20), who were not finally dispossessed till the time of Alexander the Great. Samson went down to this place from Timnath, and slew thirty men and took their spoil. The prophets foretold its destruction (Jer. 25:20; 47:5, 7). It became a noted place in the Middle Ages, having been the scene of many a bloody battle between the Saracens and the Crusaders. It was beseiged and taken by Richard the Lion-hearted, and "within its walls and towers now standing he held his court." Among the Tell Amarna tablets (see EGYPT ¯T0001137) are found letters or official despatches from Yadaya, "captain of horse and dust of the king's feet," to the "great king" of Egypt, dated from Ascalon. It is now called 'Askalan.

Ashkenaz - one of the three sons of Gomer (Gen. 10:3), and founder of one of the tribes of the Japhetic race. They are mentioned in connection with Minni and Ararat, and hence their original seat must have been in Armenia (Jer. 51:27), probably near the Black Sea, which, from their founder, was first called Axenus, and afterwards the Euxine.

Ashpenaz - the master of the eunuchs of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1:3), the "Rabsaris" of the court. His position was similar to that of the Kislar-aga of the modern Turkish sultans.

Ashtaroth - a city of Bashan, in the kingdom of Og (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 12:4; 13:12; 9:10). It was in the half-tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 13:12), and as a Levitical city was given to the Gershonites (1 Chr. 6:71). Uzzia, one of David's valiant men (1 Chr. 11:44), is named as of this city. It is identified with Tell Ashterah, in the Hauran, and is noticed on monuments B.C. 1700-1500. The name Beesh-terah (Josh. 21:27) is a contraction for Beth-eshterah, i.e., "the house of Ashtaroth."

Ashteroth Karnaim - Ashteroth of the two horns, the abode of the Rephaim (Gen. 14:5). It may be identified with Ashtaroth preceding; called "Karnaim", i.e., the "two-horned" (the crescent moon). The Samaritan version renders the word by "Sunamein," the present es-Sunamein, 28 miles south of Damascus.

Ashtoreth - the moon goddess of the Phoenicians, representing the passive principle in nature, their principal female deity; frequently associated with the name of Baal, the sun-god, their chief male deity (Judg. 10:6; 1 Sam. 7:4; 12:10). These names often occur in the plural (Ashtaroth, Baalim), probably as indicating either different statues or different modifications of the deities. This deity is spoken of as Ashtoreth of the Zidonians. She was the Ishtar of the Accadians and the Astarte of the Greeks (Jer. 44:17; 1 Kings 11:5, 33; 2 Kings 23:13). There was a temple of this goddess among the Philistines in the time of Saul (1 Sam. 31:10). Under the name of Ishtar, she was one of the great deities of the Assyrians. The Phoenicians called her Astarte. Solomon introduced the worship of this idol (1 Kings 11:33). Jezebel's 400 priests were probably employed in its service (1 Kings 18:19). It was called the "queen of heaven" (Jer. 44:25).

Ashurites - mentioned among those over whom Ish-bosheth was made king (2 Sam. 2:9).

Asia - is used to denote Proconsular Asia, a Roman province which embraced the western parts of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital, in Acts 2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22; 20:4, 16, 18, etc., and probably Asia Minor in Acts 19:26, 27; 21:27; 24:18; 27:2. Proconsular Asia contained the seven churches of the Apocalypse (Rev. 1:11). The "chiefs of Asia" (Acts 19:31) were certain wealthy citizens who were annually elected to preside over the games and religious festivals of the several cities to which they belonged. Some of these "Asiarchs" were Paul's friends.

Asnapper - probably the same as Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalos of the Greeks), styled the "great and noble" (Ezra 4:10), was the son and successor (B.C. 668) of Esar-haddon (q.v.). He was "luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a magnificent patron of literature." He formed at Nineveh a library of clay tablets, numbering about 10,000. These are now mostly in the British Museum. They throw much light on the history and antiquities of Assyria.

Assur-bani-pal was a munificent patron of literature, and the conqueror of Elam. Towards the middle of his reign his empire was shaken by a great rebellion headed by his brother in Babylon. The rebellion was finally put down, but Egypt was lost, and the military power of Assyria was so exhausted that it could with difficulty resist the hordes of Kimmerians who poured over Western Asia. (See NINEVEH.)

Asp - (Heb. pethen), Deut. 32:33; Job 20:14, 16; Isa. 11:8. It was probably the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), which was very poisonous (Rom. 3:13; Gr. aspis). The Egyptians worshipped it as the uraeus, and it was found in the desert and in the fields. The peace and security of Messiah's reign is represented by the figure of a child playing on the hole of the asp. (See ADDER.)

Ass - frequently mentioned throughout Scripture. Of the domesticated species we read of, (1.) The she ass (Heb. 'athon), so named from its slowness (Gen. 12:16; 45:23; Num. 22:23; 1 Sam. 9:3). (2.) The male ass (Heb. hamor), the common working ass of Western Asia, so called from its red colour. Issachar is compared to a strong ass (Gen. 49:14). It was forbidden to yoke together an ass and an ox in the plough (Deut. 22:10). (3.) The ass's colt (Heb. 'air), mentioned Judg. 10:4; 12:14. It is rendered "foal" in Gen. 32:15; 49:11. (Comp. Job 11:12; Isa. 30:6.) The ass is an unclean animal, because it does not chew the cud (Lev. 11:26. Comp. 2 Kings 6:25). Asses constituted a considerable portion of wealth in ancient times (Gen. 12:16; 30:43; 1 Chr. 27:30; Job 1:3; 42:12). They were noted for their spirit and their attachment to their master (Isa. 1:3). They are frequently spoken of as having been ridden upon, as by Abraham (Gen. 22:3), Balaam (Num. 22:21), the disobedient prophet (1 Kings 13:23), the family of Abdon the judge, seventy in number (Judg. 12:14), Zipporah (Ex. 4:20), the Shunammite (1 Sam. 25:30), etc. Zechariah (9:9) predicted our Lord's triumphal entrance into Jerusalem, "riding upon an ass, and upon a colt," etc. (Matt. 21:5, R.V.).

Of wild asses two species are noticed, (1) that called in Hebrew 'arod, mentioned Job 39:5 and Dan. 5:21, noted for its swiftness; and (2) that called pe're, the wild ass of Asia (Job 39:6-8; 6:5; 11:12; Isa. 32:14; Jer. 2:24; 14:6, etc.). The wild ass was distinguished for its fleetness and its extreme shyness. In allusion to his mode of life, Ishmael is likened to a wild ass (Gen. 16:12. Here the word is simply rendered "wild" in the Authorized Version, but in the Revised Version, "wild-ass among men").

Asshur - second son of Shem (Gen. 10:22; 1 Chr. 1:17). He went from the land of Shinar and built Nineveh, etc. (Gen. 10:11,12). He probably gave his name to Assyria, which is the usual translation of the word, although the form Asshur is sometimes retained (Num. 24:22, 24; Ezek. 27:23, etc.). In Gen. 2:14 "Assyria" ought to be "Asshur," which was the original capital of Assyria, a city represented by the mounds of Kalah Sherghat, on the west bank of the Tigris. This city was founded by Bel-kap-kapu about B.C. 1700. At a later date the capital was shifted to Ninua, or Nineveh, now Koyunjik, on the eastern bank of the river. (See CALAH ¯T0000688; NINEVEH.)

Assos - a sea-port town of Proconsular Asia, in the district of Mysia, on the north shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Paul came hither on foot along the Roman road from Troas (Acts 20:13, 14), a distance of 20 miles. It was about 30 miles distant from Troas by sea. The island of Lesbos lay opposite it, about 7 miles distant.

Assurance - The resurrection of Jesus (Acts 17:31) is the "assurance" (Gr. pistis, generally rendered "faith") or pledge God has given that his revelation is true and worthy of acceptance. The "full assurance [Gr. plerophoria, 'full bearing'] of faith" (Heb. 10:22) is a fulness of faith in God which leaves no room for doubt. The "full assurance of understanding" (Col. 2:2) is an entire unwavering conviction of the truth of the declarations of Scripture, a joyful steadfastness on the part of any one of conviction that he has grasped the very truth. The "full assurance of hope" (Heb. 6:11) is a sure and well-grounded expectation of eternal glory (2 Tim. 4:7, 8). This assurance of hope is the assurance of a man's own particular salvation.

This infallible assurance, which believers may attain unto as to their own personal salvation, is founded on the truth of the promises (Heb. 6:18), on the inward evidence of Christian graces, and on the testimony of the Spirit of adoption (Rom. 8:16). That such a certainty may be attained appears from the testimony of Scripture (Rom. 8:16; 1 John 2:3; 3:14), from the command to seek after it (Heb. 6:11; 2 Pet. 1:10), and from the fact that it has been attained (2 Tim. 1:12; 4:7, 8; 1 John 2:3; 4:16).

This full assurance is not of the essence of saving faith. It is the result of faith, and posterior to it in the order of nature, and so frequently also in the order of time. True believers may be destitute of it. Trust itself is something different from the evidence that we do trust. Believers, moreover, are exhorted to go on to something beyond what they at present have when they are exhorted to seek the grace of full assurance (Heb. 10:22; 2 Pet. 1:5-10). The attainment of this grace is a duty, and is to be diligently sought.

"Genuine assurance naturally leads to a legitimate and abiding peace and joy, and to love and thankfulness to God; and these from the very laws of our being to greater buoyancy, strength, and cheerfulness in the practice of obedience in every department of duty."

This assurance may in various ways be shaken, diminished, and intermitted, but the principle out of which it springs can never be lost. (See FAITH.)

Assyria - the name derived from the city Asshur on the Tigris, the original capital of the country, was originally a colony from Babylonia, and was ruled by viceroys from that kingdom. It was a mountainous region lying to the north of Babylonia, extending along the Tigris as far as to the high mountain range of Armenia, the Gordiaean or Carduchian mountains. It was founded in B.C. 1700 under Bel-kap-kapu, and became an independent and a conquering power, and shook off the yoke of its Babylonian masters. It subdued the whole of Northern Asia. The Assyrians were Semites (Gen. 10:22), but in process of time non-Semite tribes mingled with the inhabitants. They were a military people, the "Romans of the East."

Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria little is positively known. In B.C. 1120 Tiglath-pileser I., the greatest of the Assyrian kings, "crossed the Euphrates, defeated the kings of the Hittites, captured the city of Carchemish, and advanced as far as the shores of the Mediterranean." He may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. After this the Assyrians gradually extended their power, subjugating the states of Northern Syria. In the reign of Ahab, king of Israel, Shalmaneser II. marched an army against the Syrian states, whose allied army he encountered and vanquished at Karkar. This led to Ahab's casting off the yoke of Damascus and allying himself with Judah. Some years after this the Assyrian king marched an army against Hazael, king of Damascus. He besieged and took that city. He also brought under tribute Jehu, and the cities of Tyre and Sidon.

About a hundred years after this (B.C. 745) the crown was seized by a military adventurer called Pul, who assumed the name of Tiglath-pileser III. He directed his armies into Syria, which had by this time regained its independence, and took (B.C. 740) Arpad, near Aleppo, after a siege of three years, and reduced Hamath. Azariah (Uzziah) was an ally of the king of Hamath, and thus was compelled by Tiglath-pileser to do him homage and pay a yearly tribute.

In B.C. 738, in the reign of Menahem, king of Israel, Pul invaded Israel, and imposed on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings 15:19). Ahaz, the king of Judah, when engaged in a war against Israel and Syria, appealed for help to this Assyrian king by means of a present of gold and silver (2 Kings 16:8); who accordingly "marched against Damascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, and besieged the city itself." Leaving a portion of his army to continue the siege, "he advanced through the province east of Jordan, spreading fire and sword," and became master of Philistia, and took Samaria and Damascus. He died B.C. 727, and was succeeded by Shalmanezer IV., who ruled till B.C. 722. He also invaded Syria (2 Kings 17:5), but was deposed in favour of Sargon (q.v.) the Tartan, or commander-in-chief of the army, who took Samaria (q.v.) after a siege of three years, and so put an end to the kingdom of Israel, carrying the people away into captivity, B.C. 722 (2 Kings 17:1-6, 24; 18:7, 9). He also overran the land of Judah, and took the city of Jerusalem (Isa. 10:6, 12, 22, 24, 34). Mention is next made of Sennacherib (B.C. 705), the son and successor of Sargon (2 Kings 18:13; 19:37; Isa. 7:17, 18); and then of Esar-haddon, his son and successor, who took Manasseh, king of Judah, captive, and kept him for some time a prisoner at Babylon, which he alone of all the Assyrian kings made the seat of his government (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38).

Assur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, became king, and in Ezra 4:10 is referred to as Asnapper. From an early period Assyria had entered on a conquering career, and having absorbed Babylon, the kingdoms of Hamath, Damascus, and Samaria, it conquered Phoenicia, and made Judea feudatory, and subjected Philistia and Idumea. At length, however, its power declined. In B.C. 727 the Babylonians threw off the rule of the Assyrians, under the leadership of the powerful Chaldean prince Merodach-baladan (2 Kings 20:12), who, after twelve years, was subdued by Sargon, who now reunited the kingdom, and ruled over a vast empire. But on his death the smouldering flames of rebellion again burst forth, and the Babylonians and Medes successfully asserted their independence (B.C. 625), and Assyria fell according to the prophecies of Isaiah (10:5-19), Nahum (3:19), and Zephaniah (3:13), and the many separate kingdoms of which it was composed ceased to recognize the "great king" (2 Kings 18:19; Isa. 36:4). Ezekiel (31) attests (about B.C. 586) how completely Assyria was overthrown. It ceases to be a nation. (See NINEVEH ¯T0002735; BABYLON.)

Astrologer - (Dan. 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27, etc.) Heb. 'ashshaph', an enchanter, one who professes to divine future events by the appearance of the stars. This science flourished among the Chaldeans. It was positively forbidden to the Jews (Deut. 4:19; 18:10; Isa. 47:13).

Astronomy - The Hebrews were devout students of the wonders of the starry firmanent (Amos 5:8; Ps. 19). In the Book of Job, which is the oldest book of the Bible in all probability, the constellations are distinguished and named. Mention is made of the "morning star" (Rev. 2:28; comp. Isa. 14:12), the "seven stars" and "Pleiades," "Orion," "Arcturus," the "Great Bear" (Amos 5:8; Job 9:9; 38:31), "the crooked serpent," Draco (Job 26:13), the Dioscuri, or Gemini, "Castor and Pollux" (Acts 28:11). The stars were called "the host of heaven" (Isa. 40:26; Jer. 33:22).

The oldest divisions of time were mainly based on the observation of the movements of the heavenly bodies, the "ordinances of heaven" (Gen. 1:14-18; Job 38:33; Jer. 31:35; 33:25). Such observations led to the division of the year into months and the mapping out of the appearances of the stars into twelve portions, which received from the Greeks the name of the "zodiac." The word "Mazzaroth" (Job 38:32) means, as the margin notes, "the twelve signs" of the zodiac. Astronomical observations were also necessary among the Jews in order to the fixing of the proper time for sacred ceremonies, the "new moons," the "passover," etc. Many allusions are found to the display of God's wisdom and power as seen in the starry heavens (Ps. 8; 19:1-6; Isa. 51:6, etc.)

Asuppim - (1 Chr. 26:15, 17, Authorized Version; but in Revised Version, "storehouse"), properly the house of stores for the priests. In Neh. 12:25 the Authorized Version has "thresholds," marg. "treasuries" or "assemblies;" Revised Version, "storehouses."

Atad - buckthorn, a place where Joseph and his brethren, when on their way from Egypt to Hebron with the remains of their father Jacob, made for seven days a "great and very sore lamentation." On this account the Canaanites called it "Abel-mizraim" (Gen. 50:10, 11). It was probably near Hebron. The word is rendered "bramble" in Judg. 9:14, 15, and "thorns" in Ps. 58:9.

Ataroth - crowns. (1.) A city east of Jordan, not far from Gilead (Num. 32:3).

(2.) A town on the border of Ephraim and Benjamin (Josh. 16:2, 7), called also Ataroth-adar (16:5). Now ed-Da'rieh.

(3.) "Ataroth, the house of Joab" (1 Chr. 2:54), a town of Judah inhabited by the descendants of Caleb.

Ater - shut; lame. (1.) Ezra 2:16. (2.) Neh. 10:17. (3.) Ezra 2:42.

Athaliah - whom God afflicts. (1.) The daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and the wife of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Kings 8:18), who "walked in the ways of the house of Ahab" (2 Chr. 21:6), called "daughter" of Omri (2 Kings 8:26). On the death of her husband and of her son Ahaziah, she resolved to seat herself on the vacant throne. She slew all Ahaziah's children except Joash, the youngest (2 Kings 11:1,2). After a reign of six years she was put to death in an insurrection (2 Kings 11:20; 2 Chr. 21:6; 22:10-12; 23:15), stirred up among the people in connection with Josiah's being crowned as king.

(2.) Ezra 8:7. (3.) 1 Chr. 8:26.

Athens - the capital of Attica, the most celebrated city of the ancient world, the seat of Greek literature and art during the golden period of Grecian history. Its inhabitants were fond of novelty (Acts 17:21), and were remarkable for their zeal in the worship of the gods. It was a sarcastic saying of the Roman satirist that it was "easier to find a god at Athens than a man."

On his second missionary journey Paul visited this city (Acts 17:15; comp. 1 Thess. 3:1), and delivered in the Areopagus his famous speech (17:22-31). The altar of which Paul there speaks as dedicated "to the [properly "an"] unknown God" (23) was probably one of several which bore the same inscription. It is supposed that they originated in the practice of letting loose a flock of sheep and goats in the streets of Athens on the occasion of a plague, and of offering them up in sacrifice, at the spot where they lay down, "to the god concerned."

Atonement - This word does not occur in the Authorized Version of the New Testament except in Rom. 5:11, where in the Revised Version the word "reconciliation" is used. In the Old Testament it is of frequent occurrence.

The meaning of the word is simply at-one-ment, i.e., the state of being at one or being reconciled, so that atonement is reconciliation. Thus it is used to denote the effect which flows from the death of Christ.

But the word is also used to denote that by which this reconciliation is brought about, viz., the death of Christ itself; and when so used it means satisfaction, and in this sense to make an atonement for one is to make satisfaction for his offences (Ex. 32:30; Lev. 4:26; 5:16; Num. 6:11), and, as regards the person, to reconcile, to propitiate God in his behalf.

By the atonement of Christ we generally mean his work by which he expiated our sins. But in Scripture usage the word denotes the reconciliation itself, and not the means by which it is effected. When speaking of Christ's saving work, the word "satisfaction," the word used by the theologians of the Reformation, is to be preferred to the word "atonement." Christ's satisfaction is all he did in the room and in behalf of sinners to satisfy the demands of the law and justice of God. Christ's work consisted of suffering and obedience, and these were vicarious, i.e., were not merely for our benefit, but were in our stead, as the suffering and obedience of our vicar, or substitute. Our guilt is expiated by the punishment which our vicar bore, and thus God is rendered propitious, i.e., it is now consistent with his justice to manifest his love to transgressors. Expiation has been made for sin, i.e., it is covered. The means by which it is covered is vicarious satisfaction, and the result of its being covered is atonement or reconciliation. To make atonement is to do that by virtue of which alienation ceases and reconciliation is brought about. Christ's mediatorial work and sufferings are the ground or efficient cause of reconciliation with God. They rectify the disturbed relations between God and man, taking away the obstacles interposed by sin to their fellowship and concord. The reconciliation is mutual, i.e., it is not only that of sinners toward God, but also and pre-eminently that of God toward sinners, effected by the sin-offering he himself provided, so that consistently with the other attributes of his character his love might flow forth in all its fulness of blessing to men. The primary idea presented to us in different forms throughout the Scripture is that the death of Christ is a satisfaction of infinite worth rendered to the law and justice of God (q.v.), and accepted by him in room of the very penalty man had incurred. It must also be constantly kept in mind that the atonement is not the cause but the consequence of God's love to guilty men (John 3:16; Rom. 3:24, 25; Eph. 1:7; 1 John 1:9; 4:9). The atonement may also be regarded as necessary, not in an absolute but in a relative sense, i.e., if man is to be saved, there is no other way than this which God has devised and carried out (Ex. 34:7; Josh. 24:19; Ps. 5:4; 7:11; Nahum 1:2, 6; Rom. 3:5). This is God's plan, clearly revealed; and that is enough for us to know.

Atonement, Day of - the great annual day of humiliation and expiation for the sins of the nation, "the fast" (Acts 27:9), and the only one commanded in the law of Moses. The mode of its observance is described in Lev. 16:3-10; 23:26-32; and Num. 29:7-11.

It was kept on the tenth day of the month Tisri, i.e., five days before the feast of Tabernacles, and lasted from sunset to sunset. (See AZAZEL.)

Augustus - the cognomen of the first Roman emperor, C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, during whose reign Christ was born (Luke 2:1). His decree that "all the world should be taxed" was the divinely ordered occasion of Jesus' being born, according to prophecy (Micah 5:2), in Bethlehem. This name being simply a title meaning "majesty" or "venerable," first given to him by the senate (B.C. 27), was borne by succeeding emperors. Before his death (A.D. 14) he associated Tiberius with him in the empire (Luke 3:1), by whom he was succeeded.

Augustus band - (Acts 27:1.: literally, of Sebaste, the Greek form of Augusta, the name given to Caesarea in honour of Augustus Caesar). Probably this "band" or cohort consisted of Samaritan soldiers belonging to Caesarea.

Ava - a place in Assyria from which colonies were brought to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). It is probably the same with Ivah (18:34; 19:13; Isa. 37:13). It has been identified with Hit on the Euphrates.

Aven - nothingness; vanity. (1.) Hosea speaks of the "high places of Aven" (10:8), by which he means Bethel. He also calls it Beth-aven, i.e., "the house of vanity" (4:15), on account of the golden calves Jeroboam had set up there (1 Kings 12:28).

(2.) Translated by the LXX. "On" in Ezek. 30:17. The Egyptian Heliopolis or city of On (q.v.).

(3.) In Amos 1:5 it denotes the Syrian Heliopolis, the modern Baalbec.

Avenger of blood - (Heb. goel, from verb gaal, "to be near of kin," "to redeem"), the nearest relative of a murdered person. It was his right and duty to slay the murderer (2 Sam. 14:7, 11) if he found him outside of a city of refuge. In order that this law might be guarded against abuse, Moses appointed six cities of refuge (Ex. 21:13; Num. 35:13; Deut. 19:1,9). These were in different parts of the country, and every facility was afforded the manslayer that he might flee to the city that lay nearest him for safety. Into the city of refuge the avenger durst not follow him. This arrangement applied only to cases where the death was not premeditated. The case had to be investigated by the authorities of the city, and the wilful murderer was on no account to be spared. He was regarded as an impure and polluted person, and was delivered up to the goel (Deut. 19:11-13). If the offence was merely manslaughter, then the fugitive must remain within the city till the death of the high priest (Num. 35:25).

Avim - a people dwelling in Hazerim, or "the villages" or "encampments" on the south-west corner of the sea-coast (Deut. 2:23). They were subdued and driven northward by the Caphtorim. A trace of them is afterwards found in Josh. 13:3, where they are called Avites.

Awl - an instrument only referred to in connection with the custom of boring the ear of a slave (Ex. 21:6; Deut. 15:17), in token of his volunteering perpetual service when he might be free. (Comp. Ps. 40:6; Isa. 50:5).

Axe - used in the Authorized Version of Deut. 19:5; 20:19; 1 Kings 6:7, as the translation of a Hebrew word which means "chopping." It was used for felling trees (Isa. 10:34) and hewing timber for building. It is the rendering of a different word in Judg. 9:48, 1 Sam. 13:20, 21, Ps. 74:5, which refers to its sharpness. In 2 Kings 6:5 it is the translation of a word used with reference to its being made of iron. In Isa. 44:12 the Revised Version renders by "axe" the Hebrew maatsad, which means a "hewing" instrument. In the Authorized Version it is rendered "tongs." It is also used in Jer. 10:3, and rendered "axe." The "battle-axe" (army of Medes and Persians) mentioned in Jer. 51:20 was probably, as noted in the margin of the Revised Version, a "maul" or heavy mace. In Ps. 74:6 the word so rendered means "feller." (See the figurative expression in Matt. 3:10; Luke 3:9.)

Azal - (Zech. 14:5) should perhaps be rendered "very near" = "the way of escape shall be made easy." If a proper name, it may denote some place near the western extremity of the valley here spoken of near Jerusalem.

Azariah - whom Jehovah helps. (1.) Son of Ethan, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. 2:8).

(2.) Son of Ahimaaz, who succeeded his grandfather Zadok as high priest (1 Chr. 6:9; 1 Kings 4:2) in the days of Solomon. He officiated at the consecration of the temple (1 Chr. 6:10).

(3.) The son of Johanan, high priest in the reign of Abijah and Asa (2 Chr. 6:10, 11).

(4.) High priest in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah (2 Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 26:17-20). He was contemporary with the prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Joel.

(5.) High priest in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:10-13). Of the house of Zadok.

(6.) Several other priests and Levites of this name are mentioned (1 Chr. 6:36; Ezra 7:1; 1 Chr. 9:11; Neh. 3:23, etc.).

(7.) The original name of Abed-nego (Dan. 1:6, 7, 11, 16). He was of the royal family of Judah, and with his other two companions remarkable for his personal beauty and his intelligence as well as piety.

(8.) The son of Oded, a remarkable prophet in the days of Asa (2 Chr. 15:1). He stirred up the king and the people to a great national reformation.

Azazel - (Lev. 16:8, 10, 26, Revised Version only here; rendered "scape-goat" in the Authorized Version). This word has given rise to many different views. Some Jewish interpreters regard it as the name of a place some 12 miles east of Jerusalem, in the wilderness. Others take it to be the name of an evil spirit, or even of Satan. But when we remember that the two goats together form a type of Christ, on whom the Lord "laid the iniquity of us all," and examine into the root meaning of this word (viz., "separation"), the interpretation of those who regard the one goat as representing the atonement made, and the other, that "for Azazel," as representing the effect of the great work of atonement (viz., the complete removal of sin), is certainly to be preferred. The one goat which was "for Jehovah" was offered as a sin-offering, by which atonement was made. But the sins must also be visibly banished, and therefore they were symbolically laid by confession on the other goat, which was then "sent away for Azazel" into the wilderness. The form of this word indicates intensity, and therefore signifies the total separation of sin: it was wholly carried away. It was important that the result of the sacrifices offered by the high priest alone in the sanctuary should be embodied in a visible transaction, and hence the dismissal of the "scape-goat." It was of no consequence what became of it, as the whole import of the transaction lay in its being sent into the wilderness bearing away sin. As the goat "for Jehovah" was to witness to the demerit of sin and the need of the blood of atonement, so the goat "for Azazel" was to witness to the efficacy of the sacrifice and the result of the shedding of blood in the taking away of sin.

Azaziah - whom Jehovah strengthened. (1.) One of the Levitical harpers in the temple (1 Chr. 15:21).

(2.) The father of Hoshea, who was made ruler over the Ephraimites (1 Chr. 27:20).

(3.) One who had charge of the temple offerings (2 Chr. 31:13).

Azekah - dug over, a town in the Shephelah or low hills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), where the five confederated Amoritish kings were defeated by Joshua and their army destroyed by a hailstrom (10:10, 11). It was one of the places re-occupied by the Jews on their return from the Captivity (Neh. 11:30).

Azel - noble, a descendant of king Saul (1 Chr. 8:37; 9:43, 44).

Azmaveth - strong as death. (1.) One of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23:31).

(2.) An overseer over the royal treasury in the time of David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:25).

(3.) A town in the tribe of Judah, near Jerusalem (Neh. 12:29; Ezra 2:24).

(4.) 1 Chr. 8:36

Azotus - the Grecized form (Acts 8:40, etc.) of Ashdod (q.v.).

Azubah - deserted. (1.) The wife of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:18, 19).

(2.) The daughter of Shilhi, and mother of king Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:42).

Azur and Azzur - helper. (1.) The father of Hananiah, a false prophet (Jer. 28:1).

(2.) The father of Jaazaniah (Ezek. 11:1).

(3.) One of those who sealed the covenant with Jehovah on the return from Babylon (Neh. 10:17).

"B"

Baal - lord. (1.) The name appropriated to the principal male god of the Phoenicians. It is found in several places in the plural BAALIM (Judg. 2:11; 10:10; 1 Kings 18:18; Jer. 2:23; Hos. 2:17). Baal is identified with Molech (Jer. 19:5). It was known to the Israelites as Baal-peor (Num. 25:3; Deut. 4:3), was worshipped till the time of Samuel (1 Sam 7:4), and was afterwards the religion of the ten tribes in the time of Ahab (1 Kings 16:31-33; 18:19, 22). It prevailed also for a time in the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 8:27; comp. 11:18; 16:3; 2 Chr. 28:2), till finally put an end to by the severe discipline of the Captivity (Zeph. 1:4-6). The priests of Baal were in great numbers (1 Kings 18:19), and of various classes (2 Kings 10:19). Their mode of offering sacrifices is described in 1 Kings 18:25-29. The sun-god, under the general title of Baal, or "lord," was the chief object of worship of the Canaanites. Each locality had its special Baal, and the various local Baals were summed up under the name of Baalim, or "lords." Each Baal had a wife, who was a colourless reflection of himself.

(2.) A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, the progenitor of the Gibeonites (1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36).

(3.) The name of a place inhabited by the Simeonites, the same probably as Baal-ath-beer (1 Chr. 4:33; Josh. 19:8).

Baalah - mistress; city. (1.) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:29), elsewhere called Balah (Josh. 19:3) and Bilhah (1 Chr. 4:29). Now Khurbet Zebalah.

(2.) A city on the northern border of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:10), called also Kirjath-jearim, q.v. (15:9; 1 Chr. 13:6), now Kuriet-el-Enab, or as some think, 'Erma.

(3.) A mountain on the north-western boundary of Judah and Dan (Josh. 15:11).

Baalath - a town of the tribe of Dan (Josh. 19:44). It was fortified by Solomon (1 Kings 9:18; 2 Chr. 8:6). Some have identified it with Bel'ain, in Wady Deir Balut.

Baalath-beer - Baalah of the well, (Josh. 19:8, probably the same as Baal, mentioned in 1 Chr. 4:33, a city of Simeon.

Baalbec - called by the Greeks Heliopolis i.e., "the city of the sun", because of its famous Temple of the Sun, has by some been supposed to be Solomon's "house of the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17; 2 Chr. 9:16); by others it is identified with Baal-gad (q.v.). It was a city of Coele-Syria, on the lowest declivity of Anti-Libanus, about 42 miles north-west of Damascus. It was one of the most splendid of Syrian cities, existing from a remote antiquity. After sustaining several sieges under the Moslems and others, it was finally destroyed by an earthquake in 1759. Its ruins are of great extent.

Baal-berith - covenant lord, the name of the god worshipped in Shechem after the death of Gideon (Judg. 8:33; 9:4). In 9:46 he is called simply "the god Berith." The name denotes the god of the covenant into which the Israelites entered with the Canaanites, contrary to the command of Jehovah (Ex. 34:12), when they began to fall away to the worship of idols.

Baale of Judah - lords of Judah, a city in the tribe of Judah from which David brought the ark into Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:2). Elsewhere (1 Chr. 13:6) called Kirjath-jearim. (See BAALAH.)

Baal-gad - lord of fortune, or troop of Baal, a Canaanite city in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Hermon, hence called Baal-hermon (Judge. 3:3; 1 Chr. 5:23), near the source of the Jordan (Josh. 13:5; 11:17; 12:7). It was the most northern point to which Joshua's conquests extended. It probably derived its name from the worship of Baal. Its modern representative is Banias. Some have supposed it to be the same as Baalbec.

Baal-hamon - place of a multitude, a place where Solomon had an extensive vineyard (Cant. 8:11). It has been supposed to be identical with Baal-gad, and also with Hammon in the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19:28). Others identify it with Belamon, in Central Palestine, near Dothaim.

Baal-hanan - lord of grace. (1.) A king of Edom, son of Achbor (Gen. 36:38, 39; 1 Chr. 1:49, 50).

(2.) An overseer of "the olive trees and sycomore trees in the low plains" (the Shephelah) under David (1 Chr. 27:28).

Baal-hazor - having a courtyard, or Baal's village, the place on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin where Absalom held the feast of sheep-shearing when Amnon was assassinated (2 Sam. 13:23). Probably it is the same with Hazor (Neh. 11:33), now Tell' Asur, 5 miles north-east of Bethel.

Baal-hermon - lord of Hermon. (1.) A city near Mount Hermon inhabited by the Ephraimites (1 Chr. 5:23). Probably identical with Baal-gad (Josh. 11:17).

(2.) A mountain east of Lebanon (Judg. 3:3). Probably it may be the same as Mount Hermon, or one of its three peaks.

Baali - my lord, a title the prophet (Hos. 2:16) reproaches the Jewish church for applying to Jehovah, instead of the more endearing title Ishi, meaning "my husband."

Baalim - plural of Baal; images of the god Baal (Judg. 2:11; 1 Sam. 7:4).

Baalis - king of the Ammonites at the time of the Babylonian captivity (Jer. 40:14). He hired Ishmael to slay Gedaliah who had been appointed governor over the cities of Judah.

Baal-meon - lord of dwelling, a town of Reuben (Num. 32:38), called also Beth-meon (Jer. 48:23) and Beth-baal-meon (Josh. 13:17). It is supposed to have been the birth-place of Elisha. It is identified with the modern M'ain, about 3 miles south-east of Heshbon.

Baal-peor - lord of the opening, a god of the Moabites (Num. 25:3; 31:16; Josh. 22:17), worshipped by obscene rites. So called from Mount Peor, where this worship was celebrated, the Baal of Peor. The Israelites fell into the worship of this idol (Num. 25:3, 5, 18; Deut. 4:3; Ps. 106:28; Hos. 9:10).

Baal-perazim - Baal having rents, bursts, or destructions, the scene of a victory gained by David over the Philistines (2 Sam. 5:20; 1 Chr. 14:11). Called Mount Perazim (Isa. 28:21)

Baal-shalisha - lord of Shalisha, a place from which a man came with provisions for Elisha, apparently not far from Gilgal (2 Kings 4:42). It has been identified with Sirisia, 13 miles north of Lydda.

Baal-tamar - lord of palm trees, a place in the tribe of Benjamin near Gibeah of Saul (Judg. 20:33). It was one of the sanctuaries or groves of Baal. Probably the palm tree of Deborah (Judg. 4:5) is alluded to in the name.

Baal-zebub - fly-lord, the god of the Philistines at Ekron (2 Kings 1:2, 3, 16). This name was given to the god because he was supposed to be able to avert the plague of flies which in that region was to be feared. He was consulted by Ahaziah as to his recovery.

Baal-zephon - Baal of the north, an Egyptian town on the shores of the Gulf of Suez (Ex. 14:2; Num. 33:7), over against which the children of Israel encamped before they crossed the Red Sea. It is probably to be identified with the modern Jebel Deraj or Kulalah, on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Baal-zapuna of the Egyptians was a place of worship.

Baana - son of affliction. (1.) One of Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings 4:12).

(2.) Son of Hushai, another of Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings 4:16).

(3.) Father of Zadok (Neh. 3:4).

Baanah - son of affliction. (1.) One of the two sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, a captain in Saul's army. He and his brother Rechab assassinated Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 4:2), and were on this account slain by David, and their mutilated bodies suspended over the pool at Hebron (5, 6, 12).

(2.) The father of Heled, who was one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23:29; 1 Chr. 11:30).

Baasha - bravery, the third king of the separate kingdom of Israel, and founder of its second dynasty (1 Kings 15; 16; 2 Chr. 16:1-6). He was the son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar. The city of Tirzah he made the capital of his kingdom, and there he was buried, after an eventful reign of twenty-four years (1 Kings 15:33). On account of his idolatries his family was exterminated, according to the word of the prophet Jehu (1 Kings 16:3, 4, 10-13).

Babe - used of children generally (Matt. 11:25; 21:16; Luke 10:21; Rom. 2:20). It is used also of those who are weak in Christian faith and knowledge (1 Cor. 3:1; Heb. 5:13; 1 Pet. 2:2). In Isa. 3:4 the word "babes" refers to a succession of weak and wicked princes who reigned over Judah from the death of Josiah downward to the destruction of Jerusalem.

Babel, tower of - the name given to the tower which the primitive fathers of our race built in the land of Shinar after the Deluge (Gen. 11:1-9). Their object in building this tower was probably that it might be seen as a rallying-point in the extensive plain of Shinar, to which they had emigrated from the uplands of Armenia, and so prevent their being scattered abroad. But God interposed and defeated their design by condounding their language, and hence the name Babel, meaning "confusion." In the Babylonian tablets there is an account of this event, and also of the creation and the deluge. (See CHALDEA.)

The Temple of Belus, which is supposed to occupy its site, is described by the Greek historian Herodotus as a temple of great extent and magnificence, erected by the Babylonians for their god Belus. The treasures Nebuchadnezzar brought from Jerusalem were laid up in this temple (2 Chr. 36:7).

The Birs Nimrud, at ancient Borsippa, about 7 miles south-west of Hillah, the modern town which occupies a part of the site of ancient Babylon, and 6 miles from the Euphrates, is an immense mass of broken and fire-blasted fragments, of about 2,300 feet in circumference, rising suddenly to the height of 235 feet above the desert-plain, and is with probability regarded as the ruins of the tower of Babel. This is "one of the most imposing ruins in the country." Others think it to be the ruins of the Temple of Belus.

Babylon - the Greek form of BABEL; Semitic form Babilu, meaning "The Gate of God." In the Assyrian tablets it means "The city of the dispersion of the tribes." The monumental list of its kings reaches back to B.C. 2300, and includes Khammurabi, or Amraphel (q.v.), the contemporary of Abraham. It stood on the Euphrates, about 200 miles above its junction with the Tigris, which flowed through its midst and divided it into two almost equal parts. The Elamites invaded Chaldea (i.e., Lower Mesopotamia, or Shinar, and Upper Mesopotamia, or Accad, now combined into one) and held it in subjection. At length Khammu-rabi delivered it from the foreign yoke, and founded the new empire of Chaldea (q.v.), making Babylon the capital of the united kingdom. This city gradually grew in extent and grandeur, but in process of time it became subject to Assyria. On the fall of Nineveh (B.C. 606) it threw off the Assyrian yoke, and became the capital of the growing Babylonian empire. Under Nebuchadnezzar it became one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world.

After passing through various vicissitudes the city was occupied by Cyrus, "king of Elam," B.C. 538, who issued a decree permitting the Jews to return to their own land (Ezra 1). It then ceased to be the capital of an empire. It was again and again visited by hostile armies, till its inhabitants were all driven from their homes, and the city became a complete desolation, its very site being forgotten from among men.

On the west bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles south of Bagdad, there is found a series of artificial mounds of vast extent. These are the ruins of this once famous proud city. These ruins are principally (1) the great mound called Babil by the Arabs. This was probably the noted Temple of Belus, which was a pyramid about 480 feet high. (2) The Kasr (i.e., "the palace"). This was the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. It is almost a square, each side of which is about 700 feet long. The little town of Hillah, near the site of Babylon, is built almost wholly of bricks taken from this single mound. (3) A lofty mound, on the summit of which stands a modern tomb called Amran ibn-Ali. This is probably the most ancient portion of the remains of the city, and represents the ruins of the famous hanging-gardens, or perhaps of some royal palace. The utter desolation of the city once called "The glory of kingdoms" (Isa.13:19) was foretold by the prophets (Isa.13:4-22; Jer. 25:12; 50:2, 3; Dan. 2:31-38).

The Babylon mentioned in 1 Pet. 5:13 was not Rome, as some have thought, but the literal city of Babylon, which was inhabited by many Jews at the time Peter wrote.

In Rev. 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; and 18:2, "Babylon" is supposed to mean Rome, not considered as pagan, but as the prolongation of the ancient power in the papal form. Rome, pagan and papal, is regarded as one power. "The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter of tyranny and idolatry...This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus; the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Romans; so that Rome succeeded to the power of old Babylon. And it was her method to adopt the worship of the false deities she had conquered; so that by her own act she became the heiress and successor of all the Babylonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced into it by the immediate successors of Babylon, and consequently of all the idolatry of the earth." Rome, or "mystical Babylon," is "that great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth" (17:18).

Babylonish garment - a robe of rich colours fabricated at Babylon, and hence of great value (Josh.7:21).

Babylon, kingdom of - called "the land of the Chaldeans" (Jer. 24:5; Ezek, 12:13), was an extensive province in Central Asia along the valley of the Tigris from the Persian Gulf northward for some 300 miles. It was famed for its fertility and its riches. Its capital was the city of Babylon, a great commercial centre (Ezek. 17:4; Isa. 43:14). Babylonia was divided into the two districts of Accad in the north, and Summer (probably the Shinar of the Old Testament) in the south. Among its chief cities may be mentioned Ur (now Mugheir or Mugayyar), on the western bank of the Euphrates; Uruk, or Erech (Gen. 10:10) (now Warka), between Ur and Babylon; Larsa (now Senkereh), the Ellasar of Gen. 14:1, a little to the east of Erech; Nipur (now Niffer), south-east of Babylon; Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17:24), "the two Sipparas" (now Abu-Habba), considerably to the north of Babylon; and Eridu, "the good city" (now Abu-Shahrein), which lay originally on the shore of the Persian Gulf, but is now, owing to the silting up of the sand, about 100 miles distant from it. Another city was Kulunu, or Calneh (Gen. 10:10).

The salt-marshes at the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris were called Marratu, "the bitter" or "salt", the Merathaim of Jer. 50:21. They were the original home of the Kalda, or Chaldeans.

The most famous of the early kings of Babylonia were Sargon of Accad (B.C.3800) and his son, Naram-Sin, who conquered a large part of Western Asia, establishing their power in Palestine, and even carrying their arms to the Sinaitic peninsula. A great Babylonian library was founded in the reign of Sargon. Babylonia was subsequently again broken up into more than one state, and at one time fell under the domination of Elam. This was put an end to by Khammu-rabi (Amraphel), who drove the Elamites out of the country, and overcame Arioch, the son of an Elamite prince. From this time forward Babylonia was a united monarchy. About B.C. 1750 it was conquered by the Kassi, or Kosseans, from the mountains of Elam, and a Kassite dynasty ruled over it for 576 years and 9 months.

In the time of Khammu-rabi, Syria and Palestine were subject to Babylonia and its Elamite suzerain; and after the overthrow of the Elamite supremacy, the Babylonian kings continued to exercise their influence and power in what was called "the land of the Amorites." In the epoch of the Kassite dynasty, however, Canaan passed into the hands of Egypt.

In B.C. 729, Babylonia was conquered by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III.; but on the death of Shalmaneser IV. it was seized by the Kalda or "Chaldean" prince Merodach-baladan (2 Kings 20:12-19), who held it till B.C. 709, when he was driven out by Sargon.

Under Sennacherib, Babylonia revolted from Assyria several times, with the help of the Elamites, and after one of these revolts Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib, B.C. 689. It was rebuilt by Esarhaddon, who made it his residence during part of the year, and it was to Babylon that Manasseh was brought a prisoner (2 Chr. 33:11). After the death of Esarhaddon, Saul-sumyukin, the viceroy of Babylonia, revolted against his brother the Assyrian king, and the revolt was suppressed with difficulty.

When Nineveh was destroyed, B.C. 606, Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylonia, who seems to have been of Chaldean descent, made himself independent. His son Nebuchadrezzar (Nabu-kudur-uzur), after defeating the Egyptians at Carchemish, succeeded him as king, B.C. 604, and founded the Babylonian empire. He strongly fortified Babylon, and adorned it with palaces and other buildings. His son, Evil-merodach, who succeeded him in B.C. 561, was murdered after a reign of two years. The last monarch of the Babylonian empire was Nabonidus (Nabu-nahid), B.C. 555-538, whose eldest son, Belshazzar (Bilu-sar-uzur), is mentioned in several inscriptions. Babylon was captured by Cyrus, B.C. 538, and though it revolted more than once in later years, it never succeeded in maintaining its independence.

Baca, Valley of - (Ps. 84:6; R.V., "valley of weeping," marg., "or balsam trees"), probably a valley in some part of Palestine, or generally some one of the valleys through which pilgrims had to pass on their way to the sanctuary of Jehovah on Zion; or it may be figuratively "a valley of weeping."

Backbite - In Ps. 15:3, the rendering of a word which means to run about tattling, calumniating; in Prov. 25:23, secret talebearing or slandering; in Rom. 1:30 and 2 Cor. 12:20, evil-speaking, maliciously defaming the absent.

Backslide - to draw back or apostatize in matters of religion (Acts 21:21; 2 Thess. 2:3; 1 Tim. 4:1). This may be either partial (Prov. 14:14) or complete (Heb. 6:4-6; 10:38, 39). The apostasy may be both doctrinal and moral.

Badger - this word is found in Ex. 25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; Num. 4:6, etc. The tabernacle was covered with badgers' skins; the shoes of women were also made of them (Ezek. 16:10). Our translators seem to have been misled by the similarity in sound of the Hebrew tachash_ and the Latin _taxus, "a badger." The revisers have correctly substituted "seal skins." The Arabs of the Sinaitic peninsula apply the name tucash to the seals and dugongs which are common in the Red Sea, and the skins of which are largely used as leather and for sandals. Though the badger is common in Palestine, and might occur in the wilderness, its small hide would have been useless as a tent covering. The dugong, very plentiful in the shallow waters on the shores of the Red Sea, is a marine animal from 12 to 30 feet long, something between a whale and a seal, never leaving the water, but very easily caught. It grazes on seaweed, and is known by naturalists as Halicore tabernaculi.

Bag - (1.) A pocket of a cone-like shape in which Naaman bound two pieces of silver for Gehazi (2 Kings 5:23). The same Hebrew word occurs elsewhere only in Isa. 3:22, where it is rendered "crisping-pins," but denotes the reticules (or as R.V., "satchels") carried by Hebrew women.

(2.) Another word (kees) so rendered means a bag for carrying weights (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Micah 6:11). It also denotes a purse (Prov. 1:14) and a cup (23:31).

(3.) Another word rendered "bag" in 1 Sam. 17:40 is rendered "sack" in Gen. 42:25; and in 1 Sam. 9:7; 21:5 "vessel," or wallet for carrying food.

(4.) The word rendered in the Authorized Version "bags," in which the priests bound up the money contributed for the restoration of the temple (2 Kings 12:10), is also rendered "bundle" (Gen. 42:35; 1 Sam. 25:29). It denotes bags used by travellers for carrying money during a journey (Prov. 7:20; Hag. 1:6).

(5.) The "bag" of Judas was a small box (John 12:6; 13:29).

Bahurim - young men, a place east of Jerusalem (2 Sam. 3:16; 19:16), on the road to the Jordan valley. Here Shimei resided, who poured forth vile abuse against David, and flung dust and stones at him and his party when they were making their way down the eastern slopes of Olivet toward Jordan (16:5); and here Jonathan and Ahimaaz hid themselves (17:18).

With the exception of Shimei, Azmaveth, one of David's heroes, is the only other native of the place who is mentioned (2 Sam. 23:31; 1 Chr. 11:33).

Bajith - house, probably a city of Moab, which had a celebrated idol-temple (Isa. 15:2). It has also been regarded as denoting simply the temple of the idol of Moab as opposed to the "high place."

Bake - The duty of preparing bread was usually, in ancient times, committed to the females or the slaves of the family (Gen. 18:6; Lev. 26:26; 1 Sam. 8:13); but at a later period we find a class of public bakers mentioned (Hos. 7:4, 6; Jer. 37:21).

The bread was generally in the form of long or round cakes (Ex. 29:23; 1 Sam. 2:36), of a thinness that rendered them easily broken (Isa. 58:7; Matt. 14:19; 26:26; Acts 20:11). Common ovens were generally used; at other times a jar was half-filled with hot pebbles, and the dough was spread over them. Hence we read of "cakes baken on the coals" (1 Kings 19:6), and "baken in the oven" (Lev. 2:4). (See BREAD.)

Bake-meats - baked provisions (Gen. 40:17), literally "works of the baker," such as biscuits and cakes.

Balaam - lord of the people; foreigner or glutton, as interpreted by others, the son of Beor, was a man of some rank among the Midianites (Num. 31:8; comp. 16). He resided at Pethor (Deut. 23:4), in Mesopotamia (Num. 23:7). It is evident that though dwelling among idolaters he had some knowledge of the true God; and was held in such reputation that it was supposed that he whom he blessed was blessed, and he whom he cursed was cursed. When the Israelites were encamped on the plains of Moab, on the east of Jordan, by Jericho, Balak sent for Balaam "from Aram, out of the mountains of the east," to curse them; but by the remarkable interposition of God he was utterly unable to fulfil Balak's wish, however desirous he was to do so. The apostle Peter refers (2 Pet. 2:15, 16) to this as an historical event. In Micah 6:5 reference also is made to the relations between Balaam and Balak. Though Balaam could not curse Israel, yet he suggested a mode by which the divine displeasure might be caused to descend upon them (Num. 25). In a battle between Israel and the Midianites (q.v.) Balaam was slain while fighting on the side of Balak (Num. 31:8).

The "doctrine of Balaam" is spoken of in Rev. 2:14, in allusion to the fact that it was through the teaching of Balaam that Balak learned the way by which the Israelites might be led into sin. (See NICOLAITANES.) Balaam was constrained to utter prophecies regarding the future of Israel of wonderful magnificence and beauty of expression (Num. 24:5-9, 17).

Baladan - he has given a son, the father of the Babylonian king (2 Kings 20:12; Isa. 39:1) Merodach-baladan (q.v.).

Balah - a city in the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 19:3), elsewhere called Bilhah (1 Chr. 4:29) and Baalah (Josh. 15:29).

Balak - empty; spoiler, a son of Zippor, and king of the Moabites (Num. 22:2, 4). From fear of the Israelites, who were encamped near the confines of his territory, he applied to Balaam (q.v.) to curse them; but in vain (Josh. 24:9).

Balance - occurs in Lev. 19:36 and Isa. 46:6, as the rendering of the Hebrew kanch', which properly means "a reed" or "a cane," then a rod or beam of a balance. This same word is translated "measuring reed" in Ezek. 40:3,5; 42:16-18. There is another Hebrew word, mozena'yim, i.e., "two poisers", also so rendered (Dan. 5:27). The balances as represented on the most ancient Egyptian monuments resemble those now in use. A "pair of balances" is a symbol of justice and fair dealing (Job 31:6; Ps. 62:9; Prov. 11:1). The expression denotes great want and scarcity in Rev. 6:5.

Baldness - from natural causes was uncommon (2 Kings 2:23; Isa. 3:24). It was included apparently under "scab" and "scurf," which disqualified for the priesthood (Lev. 21:20). The Egyptians were rarely subject to it. This probably arose from their custom of constantly shaving the head, only allowing the hair to grow as a sign of mourning. With the Jews artificial baldness was a sign of mourning (Isa. 22:12; Jer. 7:29; 16:6); it also marked the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts 18:18; 21:24; Num. 6:9). It is often alluded to (Micah 1:16; Amos 8:10; Jer. 47:5). The Jews were forbidden to follow the customs of surrounding nations in making themselves bald (Deut. 14:1).

Balm - contracted from Bal'sam, a general name for many oily or resinous substances which flow or trickle from certain trees or plants when an incision is made through the bark.

(1.) This word occurs in the Authorized Version (Gen. 37:25; 43:11; Jer. 8:22; 46:11; 51:8; Ezek. 27:17) as the rendering of the Hebrew word tsori_ or _tseri, which denotes the gum of a tree growing in Gilead (q.v.), which is very precious. It was celebrated for its medicinal qualities, and was circulated as an article of merchandise by Arab and Phoenician merchants. The shrub so named was highly valued, and was almost peculiar to Palestine. In the time of Josephus it was cultivated in the neighbourhood of Jericho and the Dead Sea. There is an Arab tradition that the tree yielding this balm was brought by the queen of Sheba as a present to Solomon, and that he planted it in his gardens at Jericho.

(2.) There is another Hebrew word, basam_ or _bosem, from which our word "balsam," as well as the corresponding Greek balsamon, is derived. It is rendered "spice" (Cant. 5:1, 13; 6:2; margin of Revised Version, "balsam;" Ex. 35:28; 1 Kings 10:10), and denotes fragrance in general. Basam also denotes the true balsam-plant, a native of South Arabia (Cant. l.c.).

Bamah - a height, a name used simply to denote a high place where the Jews worshipped idols (Ezek. 20:29). The plural is translated "high places" in Num. 22:41 and Ezek. 36:2.

Bamoth - heights, the forty-seventh station of the Israelites (Num. 21:19,20) in the territory of the Moabites.

Bamoth-baal - heights of Baal, a place on the river Arnon, or in the plains through which it flows, east of Jordan (Josh. 13:17; comp. Num. 21:28). It has been supposed to be the same place as Bamoth.

Bands - (1) of love (Hos. 11:4); (2) of Christ (Ps. 2:3); (3) uniting together Christ's body the church (Col. 2:19; 3:14; Eph. 4:3); (4) the emblem of the captivity of Israel (Ezek. 34:27; Isa. 28:22; 52:2); (5) of brotherhood (Ezek. 37:15-28); (6) no bands to the wicked in their death (Ps. 73:4; Job 21:7; Ps. 10:6). Also denotes chains (Luke 8:29); companies of soldiers (Acts 21:31); a shepherd's staff, indicating the union between Judah and Israel (Zech. 11:7).

Bani - built. (1.) 1 Chr. 6:46. (2.) One of David's thirty-seven warriors, a Gadite (2 Sam. 23:36). (3.) Ezra 2:10; 10:29,34,38. (4.) A Levite who was prominent in the reforms on the return from Babylon (Neh. 8:7; 9:4,5). His son Rehum took part in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:17).

Banner - (1.) The flag or banner of the larger kind, serving for three tribes marching together. These standards, of which there were four, were worked with embroidery and beautifully ornamented (Num. 1:52; 2:2, 3, 10, 18, 25; Cant. 2:4; 6:4, 10).

(2.) The flag borne by each separate tribe, of a smaller form. Probably it bore on it the name of the tribe to which it belonged, or some distinguishing device (Num. 2:2,34).

(3.) A lofty signal-flag, not carried about, but stationary. It was usually erected on a mountain or other lofty place. As soon as it was seen the war-trumpets were blown (Ps. 60:4; Isa. 5:26; 11:12; 13:2; 18:3; 30:17; Jer. 4:6 21; Ezek. 27:7).

(4.) A "sign of fire" (Jer. 6:1) was sometimes used as a signal.

The banners and ensigns of the Roman army had idolatrous images upon them, and hence they are called the "abomination of desolation" (q.v.). The principal Roman standard, however, was an eagle. (See Matt. 24:28; Luke 17:37, where the Jewish nation is compared to a dead body, which the eagles gather together to devour.)

God's setting up or giving a banner (Ps. 20:5; 60:4; Cant. 2:4) imports his presence and protection and aid extended to his people.

Banquet - a feast provided for the entertainment of a company of guests (Esther 5; 7; 1 Pet. 4:3); such as was provided for our Lord by his friends in Bethany (Matt. 26:6; Mark 14:3; comp. John 12:2). These meals were in the days of Christ usually called "suppers," after the custom of the Romans, and were partaken of toward the close of the day. It was usual to send a second invitation (Matt. 22:3; Luke 14:17) to those who had been already invited. When the whole company was assembled, the master of the house shut the door with his own hands (Luke 13:25; Matt. 25:10).

The guests were first refreshed with water and fragrant oil (Luke 7:38; Mark 7:4). A less frequent custom was that of supplying each guest with a robe to be worn during the feast (Eccles. 9:8; Rev. 3:4, 5; Matt. 22:11). At private banquets the master of the house presided; but on public occasions a "governor of the feast" was chosen (John 2:8). The guests were placed in order according to seniority (Gen. 43:33), or according to the rank they held (Prov. 25:6,7; Matt. 23:6; Luke 14:7).

As spoons and knives and forks are a modern invention, and were altogether unknown in the East, the hands alone were necessarily used, and were dipped in the dish, which was common to two of the guests (John 13:26). In the days of our Lord the guests reclined at table; but the ancient Israelites sat around low tables, cross-legged, like the modern Orientals. Guests were specially honoured when extra portions were set before them (Gen. 43:34), and when their cup was filled with wine till it ran over (Ps. 23:5). The hands of the guests were usually cleaned by being rubbed on bread, the crumbs of which fell to the ground, and were the portion for dogs (Matt. 15:27; Luke 16:21).

At the time of the three annual festivals at Jerusalem family banquets were common. To these the "widow, and the fatherless, and the stranger" were welcome (Deut. 16:11). Sacrifices also included a banquet (Ex. 34:15; Judg. 16:23). Birthday banquets are mentioned (Gen. 40:20; Matt. 14:6). They were sometimes protracted, and attended with revelry and excess (Gen. 21:8; 29:22; 1 Sam. 25:2,36; 2 Sam. 13:23). Portions were sometimes sent from the table to poorer friends (Neh. 8:10; Esther 9:19, 22). (See MEALS.)

Baptism, Christian - an ordinance immediately instituted by Christ (Matt. 28:19, 20), and designed to be observed in the church, like that of the Supper, "till he come." The words "baptize" and "baptism" are simply Greek words transferred into English. This was necessarily done by the translators of the Scriptures, for no literal translation could properly express all that is implied in them.

The mode of baptism can in no way be determined from the Greek word rendered "baptize." Baptists say that it means "to dip," and nothing else. That is an incorrect view of the meaning of the word. It means both (1) to dip a thing into an element or liquid, and (2) to put an element or liquid over or on it. Nothing therefore as to the mode of baptism can be concluded from the mere word used. The word has a wide latitude of meaning, not only in the New Testament, but also in the LXX. Version of the Old Testament, where it is used of the ablutions and baptisms required by the Mosaic law. These were effected by immersion, and by affusion and sprinkling; and the same word, "washings" (Heb. 9:10, 13, 19, 21) or "baptisms," designates them all. In the New Testament there cannot be found a single well-authenticated instance of the occurrence of the word where it necessarily means immersion. Moreover, none of the instances of baptism recorded in the Acts of the Apostles (2:38-41; 8:26-39; 9:17, 18; 22:12-16; 10:44-48; 16:32-34) favours the idea that it was by dipping the person baptized, or by immersion, while in some of them such a mode was highly improbable.

The gospel and its ordinances are designed for the whole world, and it cannot be supposed that a form for the administration of baptism would have been prescribed which would in any place (as in a tropical country or in polar regions) or under any circumstances be inapplicable or injurious or impossible.

Baptism and the Lord's Supper are the two symbolical ordinances of the New Testament. The Supper represents the work of Christ, and Baptism the work of the Spirit. As in the Supper a small amount of bread and wine used in this ordinance exhibits in symbol the great work of Christ, so in Baptism the work of the Holy Spirit is fully seen in the water poured or sprinkled on the person in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. That which is essential in baptism is only "washing with water," no mode being specified and none being necessary or essential to the symbolism of the ordinance.

The apostles of our Lord were baptized with the Holy Ghost (Matt. 3:11) by his coming upon them (Acts 1:8). The fire also with which they were baptized sat upon them. The extraordinary event of Pentecost was explained by Peter as a fulfilment of the ancient promise that the Spirit would be poured out in the last days (2:17). He uses also with the same reference the expression shed forth as descriptive of the baptism of the Spirit (33). In the Pentecostal baptism "the apostles were not dipped into the Spirit, nor plunged into the Spirit; but the Spirit was shed forth, poured out, fell on them (11:15), came upon them, sat on them." That was a real and true baptism. We are warranted from such language to conclude that in like manner when water is poured out, falls, comes upon or rests upon a person when this ordinance is administered, that person is baptized. Baptism is therefore, in view of all these arguments "rightly administered by pouring or sprinkling water upon the person."

The subjects of baptism. This raises questions of greater importance than those relating to its mode.

1. The controversy here is not about "believers' baptism," for that is common to all parties. Believers were baptized in apostolic times, and they have been baptized in all time by all the branches of the church. It is altogether a misrepresentation to allege, as is sometimes done by Baptists, that their doctrine is "believers' baptism." Every instance of adult baptism, or of "believers' baptism," recorded in the New Testament (Acts 2:41; 8:37; 9:17, 18; 10:47; 16:15; 19:5, etc.) is just such as would be dealt with in precisely the same way by all branches of the Protestant Church, a profession of faith or of their being "believers" would be required from every one of them before baptism. The point in dispute is not the baptism of believers, but whether the infant children of believers, i.e., of members of the church, ought to be baptized.

2. In support of the doctrine of infant baptism, i.e., of the baptism of the infants, or rather the "children," of believing parents, the following considerations may be adduced:

The Church of Christ exists as a divinely organized community. It is the "kingdom of God," one historic kingdom under all dispensations. The commonwealth of Israel was the "church" (Acts 7:38; Rom. 9:4) under the Mosaic dispensation. The New Testament church is not a new and different church, but one with that of the Old Testament. The terms of admission into the church have always been the same viz., a profession of faith and a promise of subjection to the laws of the kingdom. Now it is a fact beyond dispute that the children of God's people under the old dispensation were recognized as members of the church. Circumcision was the sign and seal of their membership. It was not because of carnal descent from Abraham, but as being the children of God's professing people, that this rite was administered (Rom. 4:11). If children were members of the church under the old dispensation, which they undoubtedly were, then they are members of the church now by the same right, unless it can be shown that they have been expressly excluded. Under the Old Testament parents acted for their children and represented them. (See Gen. 9:9; 17:10; Ex. 24:7, 8; Deut. 29:9-13.) When parents entered into covenant with God, they brought their children with them. This was a law in the Hebrew Church. When a proselyte was received into membership, he could not enter without bringing his children with him. The New Testament does not exclude the children of believers from the church. It does not deprive them of any privilege they enjoyed under the Old Testament. There is no command or statement of any kind, that can be interpreted as giving any countenance to such an idea, anywhere to be found in the New Testament. The church membership of infants has never been set aside. The ancient practice, orginally appointed by God himself, must remain a law of his kingdom till repealed by the same divine authority. There are lambs in the fold of the Good Shepherd (John 21:15; comp. Luke 1:15; Matt. 19:14; 1 Cor. 7:14).

"In a company of converts applying for admission into Christ's house there are likely to be some heads of families. How is their case to be treated? How, for example, are Lydia and her neighbour the keeper of the city prison to be treated? Both have been converted. Both are heads of families. They desire to be received into the infant church of Philippi. What is Christ's direction to them? Shall we say that it is to this effect: 'Arise, and wash away your sins, and come into my house. But you must come in by yourselves. These babes in your arms, you must leave them outside. They cannot believe yet, and so they cannot come in. Those other little ones by your side, their hearts may perhaps have been touched with the love of God; still, they are not old enough to make a personal profession, so they too must be left outside...For the present you must leave them where they are and come in by yourselves.' One may reasonably demand very stringent proofs before accepting this as a fair representation of the sort of welcome Christ offers to parents who come to his door bringing their children with them. Surely it is more consonant with all we know about him to suppose that his welcome will be more ample in its scope, and will breathe a more gracious tone. Surely it would be more like the Good Shepherd to say, 'Come in, and bring your little ones along with you. The youngest needs my salvation; and the youngest is accessible to my salvation. You may be unable as yet to deal with them about either sin or salvation, but my gracious power can find its way into their hearts even now. I can impart to them pardon and a new life. From Adam they have inherited sin and death; and I can so unite them to myself that in me they shall be heirs of righteousness and life. You may without misgiving bring them to me. And the law of my house requires that the same day which witnesses your reception into it by baptism must witness their reception also'" (The Church, by Professor Binnie, D.D.).

Baptism for the dead - only mentioned in 1 Cor. 15:29. This expression as used by the apostle may be equivalent to saying, "He who goes through a baptism of blood in order to join a glorified church which has no existence [i.e., if the dead rise not] is a fool." Some also regard the statement here as an allusion to the strange practice which began, it is said, to prevail at Corinth, in which a person was baptized in the stead of others who had died before being baptized, to whom it was hoped some of the benefits of that rite would be extended. This they think may have been one of the erroneous customs which Paul went to Corinth to "set in order."

Baptism, John's - was not Christian baptism, nor was that which was practised by the disciples previous to our Lord's crucifixion. Till then the New Testament economy did not exist. John's baptism bound its subjects to repentance, and not to the faith of Christ. It was not administered in the name of the Trinity, and those whom John baptized were rebaptized by Paul (Acts 18:24; 19:7).

Baptism of Christ - Christ had to be formally inaugurated into the public discharge of his offices. For this purpose he came to John, who was the representative of the law and the prophets, that by him he might be introduced into his offices, and thus be publicly recognized as the Messiah of whose coming the prophecies and types had for many ages borne witness.

John refused at first to confer his baptism on Christ, for he understood not what he had to do with the "baptism of repentance." But Christ said, "'Suffer it to be so now,' NOW as suited to my state of humiliation, my state as a substitute in the room of sinners." His reception of baptism was not necessary on his own account. It was a voluntary act, the same as his act of becoming incarnate. Yet if the work he had engaged to accomplish was to be completed, then it became him to take on him the likeness of a sinner, and to fulfil all righteousness (Matt. 3:15).

The official duty of Christ and the sinless person of Christ are to be distinguished. It was in his official capacity that he submitted to baptism. In coming to John our Lord virtually said, "Though sinless, and without any personal taint, yet in my public or official capacity as the Sent of God, I stand in the room of many, and bring with me the sin of the world, for which I am the propitiation." Christ was not made under the law on his own account. It was as surety of his people, a position which he spontaneously assumed. The administration of the rite of baptism was also a symbol of the baptism of suffering before him in this official capacity (Luke 12:50). In thus presenting himself he in effect dedicated or consecrated himself to the work of fulfilling all righteousness.

Bar - used to denote the means by which a door is bolted (Neh. 3:3); a rock in the sea (Jonah 2:6); the shore of the sea (Job 38:10); strong fortifications and powerful impediments, etc. (Isa. 45:2; Amos 1:5); defences of a city (1 Kings 4:13). A bar for a door was of iron (Isa. 45:2), brass (Ps. 107:16), or wood (Nah. 3:13).

Barabbas - i.e., son of Abba or of a father, a notorious robber whom Pilate proposed to condemn to death instead of Jesus, whom he wished to release, in accordance with the Roman custom (John 18:40; Mark 15:7; Luke 23:19). But the Jews were so bent on the death of Jesus that they demanded that Barabbas should be pardoned (Matt. 27:16-26; Acts 3:14). This Pilate did.

Barachel - whom God has blessed, a Buzite, the father of Elihu, one of Job's friends (Job 32:2, 6).

Barachias, Berechiah - 4 (q.v.), whom Jehovah hath blessed, father of the prophet Zechariah (Zech. 1:1,7; Matt. 23:35).

Barak - lightning, the son of Abinoam (Judg. 4:6). At the summons of Deborah he made war against Jabin. She accompanied him into the battle, and gave the signal for the little army to make the attack; in which the host of Jabin was completely routed. The battle was fought (Judg. 4:16) in the plain of Jezreel (q.v.). This deliverance of Israel is commemorated in Judg. 5. Barak's faith is commended (Heb. 11:32). "The character of Barak, though pious, does not seem to have been heroic. Like Gideon, and in a sense Samson, he is an illustration of the words in Heb. 11:34, 'Out of weakness were made strong.'" (See DEBORAH.)

Barbarian - a Greek word used in the New Testament (Rom. 1:14) to denote one of another nation. In Col. 3:11, the word more definitely designates those nations of the Roman empire that did not speak Greek. In 1 Cor. 14:11, it simply refers to one speaking a different language. The inhabitants of Malta are so called (Acts 28:1,2, 4). They were originally a Carthaginian colony. This word nowhere in Scripture bears the meaning it does in modern times.

Barber - Found only once, in Ezek. 5:1, where reference is made to the Jewish custom of shaving the head as a sign of mourning. The Nazarites were untouched by the razor from their birth (Num. 6:5). Comp. Judg. 16:19.

Barefoot - To go barefoot was a sign of great distress (Isa. 20:2, 3, 4), or of some great calamity having fallen on a person (2 Sam. 15:30).

Bariah - fugitive, one of Shemaiah's five sons. Their father is counted along with them in 1 Chr. 3:22.

Bar-jesus - son of Joshua, the patronymic of Elymas the sorcerer (Acts 13:6), who met Paul and Barnabas at Paphos. Elymas is a word of Arabic origin meaning "wise."

Bar-jona - son of Jonah, the patronymic of Peter (Matt. 16:17; John 1:42), because his father's name was Jonas. (See PETER.)

Barkos - painter, (Ezra 2:53; Neh. 7:55). The father of some of the Nethinim.

Barley - a grain much cultivated in Egypt (Ex. 9:31) and in Palestine (Lev. 27:16; Deut. 8:8). It was usually the food of horses (1 Kings 4:28). Barley bread was used by the poorer people (Judg. 7:13; 2 Kings 4:42). Barley of the first crop was ready for the harvest by the time of the Passover, in the middle of April (Ruth 1:22; 2 Sam. 21:9). Mention is made of barley-meal (Num. 5:15). Our Lord fed five thousand with "five barley loaves and two small fishes" (John 6:9).

Barn - a storehouse (Deut. 28:8; Job 39:12; Hag. 2:19) for grain, which was usually under ground, although also sometimes above ground (Luke 12:18).

Barnabas - son of consolation, the surname of Joses, a Levite (Acts 4:36). His name stands first on the list of prophets and teachers of the church at Antioch (13:1). Luke speaks of him as a "good man" (11:24). He was born of Jewish parents of the tribe of Levi. He was a native of Cyprus, where he had a possession of land (Acts 4:36, 37), which he sold. His personal appearance is supposed to have been dignified and commanding (Acts 14:11, 12). When Paul returned to Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas took him and introduced him to the apostles (9:27). They had probably been companions as students in the school of Gamaliel.

The prosperity of the church at Antioch led the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem to send Barnabas thither to superintend the movement. He found the work so extensive and weighty that he went to Tarsus in search of Saul to assist him. Saul returned with him to Antioch and laboured with him for a whole year (Acts 11:25, 26). The two were at the end of this period sent up to Jerusalem with the contributions the church at Antioch had made for the poorer brethren there (11:28-30). Shortly after they returned, bringing John Mark with them, they were appointed as missionaries to the heathen world, and in this capacity visited Cyprus and some of the principal cities of Asia Minor (Acts 13:14). Returning from this first missionary journey to Antioch, they were again sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the church there regarding the relation of Gentiles to the church (Acts 15:2: Gal. 2:1). This matter having been settled, they returned again to Antioch, bringing the decree of the council as the rule by which Gentiles were to be admitted into the church.

When about to set forth on a second missionary journey, a dispute arose between Saul and Barnabas as to the propriety of taking John Mark with them again. The dispute ended by Saul and Barnabas taking separate routes. Saul took Silas as his companion, and journeyed through Syria and Cilicia; while Barnabas took his nephew John Mark, and visited Cyprus (Acts 15:36-41). Barnabas is not again mentioned by Luke in the Acts.

Barrel - a vessel used for keeping flour (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). The same word (cad) so rendered is also translated "pitcher," a vessel for carrying water (Gen. 24:14; Judg. 7:16).

Barren - For a woman to be barren was accounted a severe punishment among the Jews (Gen. 16:2; 30:1-23; 1 Sam. 1:6, 27; Isa. 47:9; 49:21; Luke 1:25). Instances of barrenness are noticed (Gen. 11:30; 25:21; 29:31; Judg. 13:2, 3; Luke 1:7, 36).

Barsabas - son of Saba, the surname (1) of Joseph, also called Justus (Acts 1:23), some identify him with Barnabas; (2) of Judas, who was a "prophet." Nothing more is known of him than what is mentioned in Acts 15:32.

Bartholomew - son of Tolmai, one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10:3; Acts 1:13); generally supposed to have been the same as Nathanael. In the synoptic gospels Philip and Bartholomew are always mentioned together, while Nathanael is never mentioned; in the fourth gospel, on the other hand, Philip and Nathanael are similarly mentioned together, but nothing is said of Bartholomew. He was one of the disciples to whom our Lord appeared at the Sea of Tiberias after his resurrection (John 21:2). He was also a witness of the Ascension (Acts 1:4, 12, 13). He was an "Israelite indeed" (John 1:47).

Bartimaeus - son of Timaeus, one of the two blind beggars of Jericho (Mark 10:46; Matt. 20:30). His blindness was miraculously cured on the ground of his faith.

Baruch - blessed. (1.) The secretary of the prophet Jeremiah (32:12; 36:4). He was of the tribe of Judah (51:59). To him Jeremiah dictated his prophecies regarding the invasion of the Babylonians and the Captivity. These he read to the people from a window in the temple in the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim, king of Judah (Jer. 36). He afterwards read them before the counsellors of the king at a private interview; and then to the king himself, who, after hearing a part of the roll, cut it with a penknife, and threw it into the fire of his winter parlour, where he was sitting.

During the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, he was the keeper of the deed of purchase Jeremiah had made of the territory of Hanameel (Jer. 32:12). Being accused by his enemies of favouring the Chaldeans, he was cast, with Jeremiah, into prison, where he remained till the capture of Jerusalem (B.C. 586). He probably died in Babylon.

(2.) Neh. 3:20; 10:6; 11:5.

Barzillai - of iron. (1.) A Meholathite, the father of Adriel (2 Sam. 21:8).

(2.) A Gileadite of Rogelim who was distinguished for his loyalty to David. He liberally provided for the king's followers (2 Sam. 17:27). David on his death-bed, remembering his kindness, commended Barzillai's children to the care of Solomon (1 Kings 2:7).

(3.) A priest who married a daughter of the preceding (Ezra 2:61).

Bashan - light soil, first mentioned in Gen. 14:5, where it is said that Chedorlaomer and his confederates "smote the Rephaim in Ashteroth," where Og the king of Bashan had his residence. At the time of Israel's entrance into the Promised Land, Og came out against them, but was utterly routed (Num. 21:33-35; Deut. 3:1-7). This country extended from Gilead in the south to Hermon in the north, and from the Jordan on the west to Salcah on the east. Along with the half of Gilead it was given to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 13:29-31). Golan, one of its cities, became a "city of refuge" (Josh. 21:27). Argob, in Bashan, was one of Solomon's commissariat districts (1 Kings 4:13). The cities of Bashan were taken by Hazael (2 Kings 10:33), but were soon after reconquered by Jehoash (2 Kings 13:25), who overcame the Syrians in three battles, according to the word of Elisha (19). From this time Bashan almost disappears from history, although we read of the wild cattle of its rich pastures (Ezek. 39:18; Ps. 22:12), the oaks of its forests (Isa. 2:13; Ezek. 27:6; Zech. 11:2), and the beauty of its extensive plains (Amos 4:1; Jer. 50:19). Soon after the conquest, the name "Gilead" was given to the whole country beyond Jordan. After the Exile, Bashan was divided into four districts, (1.) Gaulonitis, or Jaulan, the most western; (2.) Auranitis, the Hauran (Ezek. 47:16); (3.) Argob or Trachonitis, now the Lejah; and (4.) Batanaea, now Ard-el-Bathanyeh, on the east of the Lejah, with many deserted towns almost as perfect as when they were inhabited. (See HAURAN.)

Bashan-havoth-jair - the Bashan of the villages of Jair, the general name given to Argob by Jair, the son of Manasseh (Deut. 3:14), containing sixty cities with walls and brazen gates (Josh. 13:30; 1 Kings 4:13). (See ARGOB.)

Bashan, Hill of - (Ps. 68:15), probably another name for Hermon, which lies to the north of Bashan.

Bashemath - sweet-smelling. (1.) The daughter of Ishmael, the last of Esau's three wives (Gen. 36:3, 4, 13), from whose son Reuel four tribes of the Edomites sprung. She is also called Mahalath (Gen. 28:9). It is noticeable that Esau's three wives receive different names in the genealogical table of the Edomites (Gen. 36) from those given to them in the history (Gen. 26:34; 28:9).

(2.) A daughter of Solomon, and wife of Ahimaaz, one of his officers (1 Kings 4:15).

Basilisk - (in R.V., Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 8:17), the "king serpent," as the name imports; a fabulous serpent said to be three spans long, with a spot on its head like a crown. Probably the yellow snake is intended. (See COCKATRICE.)

Basin - or Bason. (1.) A trough or laver (Heb. aggan') for washing (Ex. 24:6); rendered also "goblet" (Cant. 7:2) and "cups" (Isa. 22:24).

(2.) A covered dish or urn (Heb. k'for) among the vessels of the temple (1 Chr. 28:17; Ezra 1:10; 8:27).

(3.) A vase (Heb. mizrak) from which to sprinkle anything. A metallic vessel; sometimes rendered "bowl" (Amos 6:6; Zech. 9:15). The vessels of the tabernacle were of brass (Ex. 27:3), while those of the temple were of gold (2 Chr. 4:8).

(4.) A utensil (Heb. saph) for holding the blood of the victims (Ex. 12:22); also a basin for domestic purposes (2 Sam. 17:28).

The various vessels spoken of by the names "basin, bowl, charger, cup, and dish," cannot now be accurately distinguished.

The basin in which our Lord washed the disciples' feet (John 13:5) must have been larger and deeper than the hand-basin.

Basket - There are five different Hebrew words so rendered in the Authorized Version: (1.) A basket (Heb. sal, a twig or osier) for holding bread (Gen. 40:16; Ex. 29:3, 23; Lev. 8:2, 26, 31; Num. 6:15, 17, 19). Sometimes baskets were made of twigs peeled; their manufacture was a recognized trade among the Hebrews.

(2.) That used (Heb. salsilloth') in gathering grapes (Jer. 6:9).

(3.) That in which the first fruits of the harvest were presented, Heb. tene, (Deut. 26:2, 4). It was also used for household purposes. In form it tapered downwards like that called corbis by the Romans.

(4.) A basket (Heb. kelub) having a lid, resembling a bird-cage. It was made of leaves or rushes. The name is also applied to fruit-baskets (Amos 8:1, 2).

(5.) A basket (Heb. dud) for carrying figs (Jer. 24:2), also clay to the brick-yard (R.V., Ps. 81:6), and bulky articles (2 Kings 10:7). This word is also rendered in the Authorized Version "kettle" (1 Sam. 2:14), "caldron" (2 Chr. 35:13), "seething-pot" (Job 41:20).

In the New Testament mention is made of the basket (Gr. kophinos, small "wicker-basket") for the "fragments" in the miracle recorded Mark 6:43, and in that recorded Matt. 15:37 (Gr. spuris, large "rope-basket"); also of the basket in which Paul escaped (Acts 9:25, Gr. spuris; 2 Cor. 11: 33, Gr. sargane, "basket of plaited cords").

Bastard - In the Old Testament the rendering of the Hebrew word mamzer', which means "polluted." In Deut. 23:2, it occurs in the ordinary sense of illegitimate offspring. In Zech. 9:6, the word is used in the sense of foreigner. From the history of Jephthah we learn that there were bastard offspring among the Jews (Judg. 11:1-7). In Heb. 12:8, the word (Gr. nothoi) is used in its ordinary sense, and denotes those who do not share the privileges of God's children.

Bastinado - beating, a mode of punishment common in the East. It is referred to by "the rod of correction" (Prov. 22:15), "scourging" (Lev. 19:20), "chastising" (Deut. 22:18). The number of blows could not exceed forty (Deut. 25:2, 3).

Bat - The Hebrew word (atalleph') so rendered (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18) implies "flying in the dark." The bat is reckoned among the birds in the list of unclean animals. To cast idols to the "moles and to the bats" means to carry them into dark caverns or desolate places to which these animals resort (Isa. 2:20), i.e., to consign them to desolation or ruin.

Bath - a Hebrew liquid measure, the tenth part of an homer (1 Kings 7:26, 38; Ezek. 45:10, 14). It contained 8 gallons 3 quarts of our measure. "Ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath" (Isa. 5:10) denotes great unproductiveness.

Bath-rabbim - daughter of many, the name of one of the gates of the city of Heshbon, near which were pools (Cant.7:4).

Baths - The use of the bath was very frequent among the Hebrews (Lev. 14:8; Num. 19:19, ect.). The high priest at his inauguration (Lev. 8:6), and on the day of atonement, was required to bathe himself (16:4, 24). The "pools" mentioned in Neh. 3:15, 16, 2 Kings 20:20, Isa. 22:11, John 9:7, were public bathing-places.

Bath-sheba - daughter of the oath, or of seven, called also Bath-shu'a (1 Chr. 3:5), was the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. 11:3) or Ammiel (1 Chr. 3:5), and wife of Uriah the Hittite. David committed adultery with her (2 Sam. 11:4, 5; Ps. 51:1). The child born in adultery died (2 Sam. 12:15-19). After her husband was slain (11:15) she was married to David (11:27), and became the mother of Solomon (12:24; 1 Kings 1:11; 2:13). She took a prominent part in securing the succession of Solomon to the throne (1 Kings 1:11, 16-21).

Battering-ram - (Ezek. 4:2; 21:22), a military engine, consisting of a long beam of wood hung upon a frame, for making breaches in walls. The end of it which was brought against the wall was shaped like a ram's head.

Battle-axe - a mallet or heavy war-club. Applied metaphorically (Jer. 51:20) to Cyrus, God's instrument in destroying Babylon.

Battle-bow - the war-bow used in fighting (Zech. 9:10; 10:4). "Thy bow was made quite naked" (Hab. 3:9) means that it was made ready for use. By David's order (2 Sam. 1:18) the young men were taught the use, or rather the song of the bow. (See ARMOUR ¯T0000315, BOW.)

Battlement - a parapet wall or balustrade surrounding the flat roofs of the houses, required to be built by a special law (Deut. 22:8). In Jer. 5:10, it denotes the parapet of a city wall.

Bay - denotes the estuary of the Dead Sea at the mouth of the Jordan (Josh. 15:5; 18:19), also the southern extremity of the same sea (15:2). The same Hebrew word is rendered "tongue" in Isa. 11:15, where it is used with reference to the forked mouths of the Nile.

Bay in Zech. 6:3, 7 denotes the colour of horses, but the original Hebrew means strong, and is here used rather to describe the horses as fleet or spirited.

Bay tree - named only in Ps. 37:35, Authorized Version. The Hebrew word so rendered is ereh, which simply means "native born", i.e., a tree not transplanted, but growing on its native soil, and therefore luxuriantly. If the psalmist intended by this word to denote any particular tree, it may have been the evergreen bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), which is a native of Palestine. Instead of "like a green bay tree" in the Authorized Version, the Revised Version has, "like a green tree in its native soil."

Bdellium - occurs only in Gen. 2:12, where it designates a product of the land of Havilah; and in Num. 11:7, where the manna is likened to it in colour. It was probably an aromatic gum like balsam which exuded from a particular tree (Borassus flabelliformis) still found in Arabia, Media, and India. It bears a resemblance in colour to myrrh. Others think the word denotes "pearls," or some precious stone.

Beacon - a pole (Heb. to'ren) used as a standard or ensign set on the tops of mountains as a call to the people to assemble themselves for some great national purpose (Isa. 30:17). In Isa. 33:23 and Ezek. 27:5, the same word is rendered "mast." (See Banner.)

Bealiah - whose Lord is Jehovah, a Benjamite, one of David's thirty heroes of the sling and bow (1 Chr. 12:5).

Bealoth - citizens, a town in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15:24); probably the same as Baalath-beer (19:8). In 1 Kings 4:16, the Authorized Version has "in Aloth," the Revised Version "Bealoth."

Beam - occurs in the Authorized Version as the rendering of various Hebrew words. In 1 Sam. 17:7, it means a weaver's frame or principal beam; in Hab. 2:11, a crossbeam or girder; 2 Kings 6:2, 5, a cross-piece or rafter of a house; 1 Kings 7:6, an architectural ornament as a projecting step or moulding; Ezek. 41:25, a thick plank. In the New Testament the word occurs only in Matt. 7:3, 4, 5, and Luke 6:41, 42, where it means (Gr. dokos) a large piece of wood used for building purposes, as contrasted with "mote" (Gr. karphos), a small piece or mere splinter. "Mote" and "beam" became proverbial for little and great faults.

Beans - mentioned in 2 Sam. 17:28 as having been brought to David when flying from Absalom. They formed a constituent in the bread Ezekiel (4:9) was commanded to make, as they were in general much used as an article of diet. They are extensively cultivated in Egypt and Arabia and Syria.

Bear - a native of the mountain regions of Western Asia, frequently mentioned in Scripture. David defended his flocks against the attacks of a bear (1 Sam. 17:34-37). Bears came out of the wood and destroyed the children who mocked the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 2:24). Their habits are referred to in Isa. 59:11; Prov. 28:15; Lam. 3:10. The fury of the female bear when robbed of her young is spoken of (2 Sam. 17:8; Prov. 17:12; Hos. 13:8). In Daniel's vision of the four great monarchies, the Medo-Persian empire is represented by a bear (7:5).

Beard - The mode of wearing it was definitely prescribed to the Jews (Lev. 19:27; 21:5). Hence the import of Ezekiel's (5:1-4) description of the "razor" i.e., the agents of an angry providence being used against the guilty nation of the Jews. It was a part of a Jew's daily toilet to anoint his beard with oil and perfume (Ps. 133:2). Beards were trimmed with the most fastidious care (2 Sam. 19:24), and their neglet was an indication of deep sorrow (Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5). The custom was to shave or pluck off the hair as a sign of mourning (Isa. 50:6; Jer. 48:37; Ezra 9:3). The beards of David's ambassadors were cut off by hanun (2 Sam. 10:4) as a mark of indignity.

On the other hand, the Egyptians carefully shaved the hair off their faces, and they compelled their slaves to do so also (Gen. 41:14).

Beast - This word is used of flocks or herds of grazing animals (Ex. 22:5; Num. 20:4, 8, 11; Ps. 78:48); of beasts of burden (Gen. 45:17); of eatable beasts (Prov. 9:2); and of swift beasts or dromedaries (Isa. 60:6). In the New Testament it is used of a domestic animal as property (Rev. 18:13); as used for food (1 Cor. 15:39), for service (Luke 10:34; Acts 23:24), and for sacrifice (Acts 7:42).

When used in contradistinction to man (Ps. 36:6), it denotes a brute creature generally, and when in contradistinction to creeping things (Lev. 11:2-7; 27:26), a four-footed animal.

The Mosaic law required that beasts of labour should have rest on the Sabbath (Ex. 20:10; 23:12), and in the Sabbatical year all cattle were allowed to roam about freely, and eat whatever grew in the fields (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:7). No animal could be castrated (Lev. 22:24). Animals of different kinds were to be always kept separate (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:10). Oxen when used in threshing were not to be prevented from eating what was within their reach (Deut. 25:4; 1 Cor.9:9).

This word is used figuratively of an infuriated multitude (1 Cor. 15:32; Acts 19:29; comp. Ps. 22:12, 16; Eccl. 3:18; Isa. 11:6-8), and of wicked men (2 Pet. 2:12). The four beasts of Daniel 7:3, 17, 23 represent four kingdoms or kings.

Beaten gold - in Num. 8:4, means "turned" or rounded work in gold. The Greek Version, however, renders the word "solid gold;" the Revised Version, "beaten work of gold." In 1 Kings 10:16, 17, it probably means "mixed" gold, as the word ought to be rendered, i.e., not pure gold. Others render the word in these places "thin plates of gold."

Beaten oil - (Ex. 27:20; 29:40), obtained by pounding olives in a mortar, not by crushing them in a mill. It was reckoned the best. (See OLIVE.)

Beautiful gate - the name of one of the gates of the temple (Acts 3:2). It is supposed to have been the door which led from the court of the Gentiles to the court of the women. It was of massive structure, and covered with plates of Corinthian brass.

Becher - first-born; a youth, the second son of Benjamin (Gen. 46:21), who came down to Egypt with Jacob. It is probable that he married an Ephraimitish heiress, and that his descendants were consequently reckoned among the tribe of Ephraim (Num. 26:35; 1 Chr. 7:20, 21). They are not reckoned among the descendants of Benjamin (Num. 26:38).

Bed - (Heb. mittah), for rest at night (Ex. 8:3; 1 Sam. 19:13, 15, 16, etc.); during sickness (Gen. 47:31; 48:2; 49:33, etc.); as a sofa for rest (1 Sam. 28:23; Amos 3:12). Another Hebrew word (er'es) so rendered denotes a canopied bed, or a bed with curtains (Deut. 3:11; Ps. 132:3), for sickness (Ps. 6:6; 41:3).

In the New Testament it denotes sometimes a litter with a coverlet (Matt. 9:2, 6; Luke 5:18; Acts 5:15).

The Jewish bedstead was frequently merely the divan or platform along the sides of the house, sometimes a very slight portable frame, sometimes only a mat or one or more quilts. The only material for bed-clothes is mentioned in 1 Sam. 19:13. Sleeping in the open air was not uncommon, the sleeper wrapping himself in his outer garment (Ex. 22:26,27; Deut. 24:12,13).

Bedan - one of the judges of Israel (1 Sam. 12:11). It is uncertain who he was. Some suppose that Barak is meant, others Samson, but most probably this is a contracted form of Abdon (Judg. 12:13).

Bed-chamber - an apartment in Eastern houses, furnished with a slightly elevated platform at the upper end and sometimes along the sides, on which were laid mattresses. This was the general arrangement of the public sleeping-room for the males of the family and for guests, but there were usually besides distinct bed-chambers of a more private character (2 Kings 4:10; Ex. 8:3; 2 Kings 6:12). In 2 Kings 11:2 this word denotes, as in the margin of the Revised Version, a store-room in which mattresses were kept.

Bedstead - used in Deut. 3:11, but elsewhere rendered "couch," "bed." In 2 Kings 1:4; 16:2; Ps. 132:3; Amos 3:12, the divan is meant by this word.

Bee - First mentioned in Deut. 1:44. Swarms of bees, and the danger of their attacks, are mentioned in Ps. 118:12. Samson found a "swarm of bees" in the carcass of a lion he had slain (Judg. 14:8). Wild bees are described as laying up honey in woods and in clefts of rocks (Deut. 32:13; Ps. 81:16). In Isa. 7:18 the "fly" and the "bee" are personifications of the Egyptians and Assyrians, the inveterate enemies of Israel.

Beelzebub - (Gr. form Beel'zebul), the name given to Satan, and found only in the New Testament (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22). It is probably the same as Baalzebub (q.v.), the god of Ekron, meaning "the lord of flies," or, as others think, "the lord of dung," or "the dung-god."

Beer - well. (1.) A place where a well was dug by the direction of Moses, at the forty-fourth station of the Hebrews in their wanderings (Num. 21:16-18) in the wilderness of Moab. (See WELL.)

(2.) A town in the tribe of Judah to which Jotham fled for fear of Abimelech (Judg. 9:21). Some have identified this place with Beeroth.

Beer-elim - well of heroes, probably the name given to Beer, the place where the chiefs of Israel dug a well (Num. 21:16; Isa. 15:8).

Beeri - illustrious, or the well-man. (1.) The father of Judith, one of the wives of Esau (Gen. 26:34), the same as Adah (Gen. 36:2). (2.) The father of the prophet Hosea (1:1).

Beer-lahai-roi - i.e., "the well of him that liveth and seeth me," or, as some render it, "the well of the vision of life", the well where the Lord met with Hagar (Gen. 16:7-14). Isaac dwelt beside this well (24:62; 25:11). It has been identified with 'Ain Muweileh, or Moilahhi, south-west of Beersheba, and about 12 miles W. from Kadesh-barnea.

Beeroth - wells, one of the four cities of the Hivites which entered by fraud into a league with Joshua. It belonged to Benjamin (Josh. 18:25). It has by some been identified with el-Bireh on the way to Nablus, 10 miles north of Jerusalem.

Beeroth of the children of Jaakan - (Deut. 10:6). The same as Bene-jaakan (Num. 33:31).

Beersheba - well of the oath, or well of seven, a well dug by Abraham, and so named because he and Abimelech here entered into a compact (Gen. 21:31). On re-opening it, Isaac gave it the same name (Gen. 26:31-33). It was a favourite place of abode of both of these patriarchs (21:33-22:1, 19; 26:33; 28:10). It is mentioned among the "cities" given to the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 19:2; 1 Chr. 4:28). From Dan to Beersheba, a distance of about 144 miles (Judg. 20:1; 1 Chr. 21:2; 2 Sam. 24:2), became the usual way of designating the whole Promised Land, and passed into a proverb. After the return from the Captivity the phrase is narrowed into "from Beersheba unto the valley of Hinnom" (Neh. 11:30). The kingdom of the ten tribes extended from Beersheba to Mount Ephraim (2 Chr. 19:4). The name is not found in the New Testament. It is still called by the Arabs Bir es-Seba, i.e., "well of the seven", where there are to the present day two principal wells and five smaller ones. It is nearly midway between the southern end of the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean.

Beetle - (Heb. hargol, meaning "leaper"). Mention of it is made only in Lev. 11:22, where it is obvious the word cannot mean properly the beetle. It denotes some winged creeper with at least four feet, "which has legs above its feet, to leap withal." The description plainly points to the locust (q.v.). This has been an article of food from the earliest times in the East to the present day. The word is rendered "cricket" in the Revised Version.

Beeves - (an old English plural of the word beef), a name applicable to all ruminating animals except camels, and especially to the Bovidce, or horned cattle (Lev. 22:19, 21; Num. 31:28, 30, 33, 38, 44).

Beg - That the poor existed among the Hebrews we have abundant evidence (Ex. 23:11; Deut. 15:11), but there is no mention of beggars properly so called in the Old Testament. The poor were provided for by the law of Moses (Lev. 19:10; Deut. 12:12; 14:29). It is predicted of the seed of the wicked that they shall be beggars (Ps. 37:25; 109:10).

In the New Testament we find not seldom mention made of beggars (Mark 10:46; Luke 16:20, 21; Acts 3:2), yet there is no mention of such a class as vagrant beggars, so numerous in the East. "Beggarly," in Gal. 4:9, means worthless.

Behead - a method of taking away life practised among the Egyptians (Gen. 40:17-19). There are instances of this mode of punishment also among the Hebrews (2 Sam. 4:8; 20:21,22; 2 Kings 10:6-8). It is also mentioned in the New Testament (Matt. 14:8-12; Acts 12:2).

Behemoth - (Job 40:15-24). Some have supposed this to be an Egyptian word meaning a "water-ox." The Revised Version has here in the margin "hippopotamus," which is probably the correct rendering of the word. The word occurs frequently in Scripture, but, except here, always as a common name, and translated "beast" or "cattle."

Bekah - Both the name and its explanation, "a half shekel," are given in Ex. 38:26. The word properly means a "division," a "part." (R.V., "beka.")

Bel - the Aramaic form of Baal, the national god of the Babylonians (Isa. 46:1; Jer. 50:2; 51:44). It signifies "lord." (See BAAL.)

Bela - a thing swallowed. (1.) A city on the shore of the Dead Sea, not far from Sodom, called also Zoar. It was the only one of the five cities that was spared at Lot's intercession (Gen. 19:20,23). It is first mentioned in Gen. 14:2,8.

(2.) The eldest son of Benjamin (Num. 26:38; "Belah," Gen. 46:21).

(3.) The son of Beor, and a king of Edom (Gen. 36:32, 33; 1 Chr. 1:43).

(4.) A son of Azaz (1 Chr. 5:8).

Belial - worthlessness, frequently used in the Old Testament as a proper name. It is first used in Deut. 13:13. In the New Testament it is found only in 2 Cor. 6:15, where it is used as a name of Satan, the personification of all that is evil. It is translated "wicked" in Deut. 15:9; Ps. 41:8 (R.V. marg.); 101:3; Prov. 6:12, etc. The expression "son" or "man of Belial" means simply a worthless, lawless person (Judg. 19:22; 20:13; 1 Sam. 1:16; 2:12).

Bell - The bells first mentioned in Scripture are the small golden bells attached to the hem of the high priest's ephod (Ex. 28:33, 34, 35). The "bells of the horses" mentioned by Zechariah (14:20) were attached to the bridles or belts round the necks of horses trained for war, so as to accustom them to noise and tumult.

Bellows - occurs only in Jer. 6:29, in relation to the casting of metal. Probably they consisted of leather bags similar to those common in Egypt.

Belly - the seat of the carnal affections (Titus 1:12; Phil. 3:19; Rom. 16:18). The word is used symbolically for the heart (Prov. 18:8; 20:27; 22:18, marg.). The "belly of hell" signifies the grave or underworld (Jonah 2:2).

Belshazzar - Bel protect the king!, the last of the kings of Babylon (Dan. 5:1). He was the son of Nabonidus by Nitocris, who was the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar and the widow of Nergal-sharezer. When still young he made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and when heated with wine sent for the sacred vessels his "father" (Dan. 5:2), or grandfather, Nebuchadnezzar had carried away from the temple in Jerusalem, and he and his princes drank out of them. In the midst of their mad revelry a hand was seen by the king tracing on the wall the announcement of God's judgment, which that night fell upon him. At the instance of the queen (i.e., his mother) Daniel was brought in, and he interpreted the writing. That night the kingdom of the Chaldeans came to an end, and the king was slain (Dan. 5:30). (See NERGAL-SHAREZER ¯T0002709.)

The absence of the name of Belshazzar on the monuments was long regarded as an argument against the genuineness of the Book of Daniel. In 1854 Sir Henry Rawlinson found an inscription of Nabonidus which referred to his eldest son. Quite recently, however, the side of a ravine undermined by heavy rains fell at Hillah, a suburb of Babylon. A number of huge, coarse earthenware vases were laid bare. These were filled with tablets, the receipts and contracts of a firm of Babylonian bankers, which showed that Belshazzar had a household, with secretaries and stewards. One was dated in the third year of the king Marduk-sar-uzur. As Marduk-sar-uzar was another name for Baal, this Marduk-sar-uzur was found to be the Belshazzar of Scripture. In one of these contract tablets, dated in the July after the defeat of the army of Nabonidus, we find him paying tithes for his sister to the temple of the sun-god at Sippara.

Belteshazzar - Beltis protect the king!, the Chaldee name given to Daniel by Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1:7).

Benaiah - built up by Jehovah. (1.) The son of Jehoiada, chief priest (1 Chr. 27:5). He was set by David over his body-guard of Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Kings 1:32; 1 Chr. 18:17). His exploits are enumerated in 2 Sam. 23:20, 21, 22; 1 Chr. 11:22. He remained faithful to Solomon (1 Kings 1:8, 10, 26), by whom he was raised to the rank of commander-in-chief (1 Kings 2:25, 29, 30, 34, 35; 4:4).

(2.) 2 Sam. 23:30; 1 Chr. 11:31.

(3.) A musical Levite (1 Chr. 15:18, 20).

(4.) A priest (1 Chr. 15:24; 16:6).

(5.) The son of Jeiel (2 Chr. 20:14).

Ben-ammi - son of my kindred; i.e., "born of incest", the son of Lot by his youngest daughter (Gen. 19:38).

Bench - deck of a Tyrian ship, described by Ezekiel (27:6) as overlaid with box-wood.

Bene-jaakan - children of Jaakan (Num. 33:31, 32), the same as Beeroth.

Ben-hadad - the standing title of the Syrian kings, meaning "the son of Hadad." (See HADADEZER.)

(1.) The king of Syria whom Asa, king of Judah, employed to invade Israel (1 Kings 15:18).

(2.) Son of the preceding, also king of Syria. He was long engaged in war against Israel. He was murdered probably by Hazael, by whom he was succeeded (2 Kings 8:7-15), after a reign of some thirty years.

(3.) King of Damascus, and successor of his father Hazael on the throne of Syria (2 Kings 13:3, 4). His misfortunes in war are noticed by Amos (1:4).

Benjamin - son of my right hand. (1.) The younger son of Jacob by Rachel (Gen. 35:18). His birth took place at Ephrath, on the road between Bethel and Bethlehem, at a short distance from the latter place. His mother died in giving him birth, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, son of my pain, a name which was changed by his father into Benjamin. His posterity are called Benjamites (Gen. 49:27; Deut. 33:12; Josh. 18:21).

The tribe of Benjamin at the Exodus was the smallest but one (Num. 1:36, 37; Ps. 68:27). During the march its place was along with Manasseh and Ephraim on the west of the tabernacle. At the entrance into Canaan it counted 45,600 warriors. It has been inferred by some from the words of Jacob (Gen. 49:27) that the figure of a wolf was on the tribal standard. This tribe is mentioned in Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5.

The inheritance of this tribe lay immediately to the south of that of Ephraim, and was about 26 miles in length and 12 in breadth. Its eastern boundary was the Jordan. Dan intervened between it and the Philistines. Its chief towns are named in Josh. 18:21-28.

The history of the tribe contains a sad record of a desolating civil war in which they were engaged with the other eleven tribes. By it they were almost exterminated (Judg. 20:20, 21; 21:10). (See GIBEAH.)

The first king of the Jews was Saul, a Benjamite. A close alliance was formed between this tribe and that of Judah in the time of David (2 Sam. 19:16, 17), which continued after his death (1 Kings 11:13; 12:20). After the Exile these two tribes formed the great body of the Jewish nation (Ezra 1:5; 10:9).

The tribe of Benjamin was famous for its archers (1 Sam. 20:20, 36; 2 Sam. 1:22; 1 Chr. 8:40; 12:2) and slingers (Judge. 20:6).

The gate of Benjamin, on the north side of Jerusalem (Jer. 37:13; 38:7; Zech. 14:10), was so called because it led in the direction of the territory of the tribe of Benjamin. It is called by Jeremiah (20:2) "the high gate of Benjamin;" also "the gate of the children of the people" (17:19). (Comp. 2 Kings 14:13.)

Beor - a torch. (1.) The father of Bela, one of the kings of Edom (Gen. 36:32).

(2.) The father of Balaam (Num. 22:5; 24:3, 15; 31:8). In 2 Pet. 2:15 he is called Bosor.

Bera - gift, or son of evil, king of Sodom at the time of the invasion of the four kings under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:2, 8, 17, 21).

Berachah - blessing. (1.) A valley not far from Engedi, where Jehoshaphat overthrew the Moabites and Ammonites (2 Chr. 20:26). It has been identified with the valley of Bereikut. (R.V., "Beracah.")

(2.) One of the Benjamite warriors, Saul's brethren, who joined David when at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3).

Berea - a city of Macedonia to which Paul with Silas and Timotheus went when persecuted at Thessalonica (Acts 17:10, 13), and from which also he was compelled to withdraw, when he fled to the sea-coast and thence sailed to Athens (14, 15). Sopater, one of Paul's companions belonged to this city, and his conversion probably took place at this time (Acts 20:4). It is now called Verria.

Berechiah - blessed by Jehovah. (1.) Son of Shimea, and father of Asaph the musician (1 Chr. 6:39; 15:17).

(2.) One of the seven Ephraimite chieftains, son of Meshillemoth (2 Chr. 28:12).

(3.) The fourth of the five sons of Zerubbabel, of the royal family of Judah (1 Chr. 3:20).

(4.) The father of the prophet Zechariah (1:1,7).

Bered - hail. (1.) A town in the south of Palestine (Gen. 16:14), in the desert of Shur, near Lahai-roi.

(2.) A son of Shuthelah, and grandson of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7:20).

Beriah - a gift, or in evil. (1.) One of Asher's four sons, and father of Heber (Gen. 46:17).

(2.) A son of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7:20-23), born after the slaughter of his brothers, and so called by his father "because it went evil with his house" at that time.

(3.) A Benjamite who with his brother Shema founded Ajalon and expelled the Gittites (1 Chr. 8:13).

Bernice - bearer of victory, the eldest daughter of Agrippa I., the Herod Agrippa of Acts 12:20. After the early death of her first husband she was married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis. After his death (A.D. 40) she lived in incestuous connection with her brother Agrippa II. (Acts 25:13, 23; 26:30). They joined the Romans at the outbreak of the final war between them and the Jews, and lived afterwards at Rome.

Berodach-baladan - the king of Babylon who sent a friendly deputation to Hezekiah (2 Kings 20:12). In Isa. 39:1 he is called Merodach-baladan (q.v.).

Beryl - the rendering in the Authorized Version of the Hebrew word tarshish, a precious stone; probably so called as being brought from Tarshish. It was one of the stones on the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. 28:20; R.V. marg., "chalcedony;" 39:13). The colour of the wheels in Ezekiel's vision was as the colour of a beryl stone (1:16; 10:9; R.V., "stone of Tarshish"). It is mentioned in Cant. 5:14; Dan. 10:6; Rev. 21:20. In Ezek. 28:13 the LXX. render the word by "chrysolite," which the Jewish historian Josephus regards as its proper translation. This also is the rendering given in the Authorized Version in the margin. That was a gold-coloured gem, the topaz of ancient authors.

Besom - the rendering of a Hebrew word meaning sweeper, occurs only in Isa. 14:23, of the sweeping away, the utter ruin, of Babylon.

Besor - cold, a ravine or brook in the extreme south-west of Judah, where 200 of David's men stayed behind because they were faint, while the other 400 pursued the Amalekites (1 Sam. 30:9, 10, 21). Probably the Wadyes Sheriah, south of Gaza.

Bestead - the rendering in Isa. 8:21, where alone it occurs, of a Hebrew word meaning to oppress, or be in circumstances of hardship.

Betah - confidence, a city belonging to Hadadezer, king of Zobah, which yielded much spoil of brass to David (2 Sam. 8:8). In 1 Chr. 18:8 it is called Tibhath.

Beth - occurs frequently as the appellation for a house, or dwelling-place, in such compounds as the words immediately following:

Bethabara - house of the ford, a place on the east bank of the Jordan, where John was baptizing (John 1:28). It may be identical with Bethbarah, the ancient ford of Jordan of which the men of Ephraim took possession (Judg. 7:24). The Revised Version reads "Bethany beyond Jordan." It was the great ford, and still bears the name of "the ford," Makhadhet 'Abarah, "the ford of crossing over," about 25 miles from Nazareth. (See BETHBARAH.)

Beth-anath - house of response, one of the fenced cities of Naphtali (Josh. 19:38). It is perhaps identical with the modern village 'Ainata, 6 miles west of Kedesh.

Beth-anoth - house of answers, a city in the mountainous district of Judah (Josh. 15:59). It has been identified with the modern Beit-'Anun, about 3 miles northeast of Hebron.

Bethany - house of dates. (1.) The Revised Version in John 1:28 has this word instead of Bethabara, on the authority of the oldest manuscripts. It appears to have been the name of a place on the east of Jordan.

(2.) A village on the south-eastern slope of the Mount of Olives (Mark 11:1), about 2 miles east of Jerusalem, on the road to Jericho. It derived its name from the number of palm-trees which grew there. It was the residence of Lazarus and his sisters. It is frequently mentioned in connection with memorable incidents in the life of our Lord (Matt. 21:17; 26:6; Mark 11:11, 12; 14:3; Luke 24:50; John 11:1; 12:1). It is now known by the name of el-Azariyeh, i.e., "place of Lazarus," or simply Lazariyeh. Seen from a distance, the village has been described as "remarkably beautiful, the perfection of retirement and repose, of seclusion and lovely peace." Now a mean village, containing about twenty families.

Beth-arabah - house of the desert, one of the six cities of Judah, situated in the sunk valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea (Josh. 18:22). In Josh. 15:61 it is said to have been "in the wilderness." It was afterwards included in the towns of Benjamin. It is called Arabah (Josh. 18:18).

Beth-aram - house of the height; i.e., "mountain-house", one of the towns of Gad, 3 miles east of Jordan, opposite Jericho (Josh. 13:27). Probably the same as Beth-haran in Num. 32:36. It was called by king Herod, Julias, or Livias, after Livia, the wife of Augustus. It is now called Beit-haran.

Beth-arbel - house of God's court, a place alluded to by Hosea (10:14) as the scene of some great military exploit, but not otherwise mentioned in Scripture. The Shalman here named was probably Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria (2 Kings 17:3).

Beth-aven - house of nothingness; i.e., "of idols", a place in the mountains of Benjamin, east of Bethel (Josh. 7:2; 18:12; 1 Sam. 13:5). In Hos. 4:15; 5:8; 10:5 it stands for "Bethel" (q.v.), and it is so called because it was no longer the "house of God," but "the house of idols," referring to the calves there worshipped.

Beth-barah - house of crossing, a place south of the scene of Gideon's victory (Judg. 7:24). It was probably the chief ford of the Jordan in that district, and may have been that by which Jacob crossed when he returned from Mesopotamia, near the Jabbok (Gen. 32:22), and at which Jephthah slew the Ephraimites (Judg. 12:4). Nothing, however, is certainly known of it. (See BETHABARA.)

Beth-car - sheep-house, a place to which the Israelites pursued the Philistines west from Mizpeh (1 Sam. 7:11).

Beth-dagon - house of Dagon. (1.) A city in the low country or plain of Judah, near Philistia (Josh. 15:41); the modern Beit Degan, about 5 miles from Lydda.

(2.) A city near the south-east border of Asher (Josh. 19:27). It was a Philistine colony. It is identical with the modern ruined village of Tell D'auk.

Beth-diblathaim - house of two cakes of figs, a city of Moab, upon which Jeremiah (48:22) denounced destruction. It is called also Almon-diblathaim (Num. 33:46) and Diblath (Ezek. 6:14). (R.V., "Diblah.")

Bethel - house of God. (1.) A place in Central Palestine, about 10 miles north of Jerusalem, at the head of the pass of Michmash and Ai. It was originally the royal Canaanite city of Luz (Gen. 28:19). The name Bethel was at first apparently given to the sanctuary in the neighbourhood of Luz, and was not given to the city itself till after its conquest by the tribe of Ephraim. When Abram entered Canaan he formed his second encampment between Bethel and Hai (Gen. 12:8); and on his return from Egypt he came back to it, and again "called upon the name of the Lord" (13:4). Here Jacob, on his way from Beersheba to Haran, had a vision of the angels of God ascending and descending on the ladder whose top reached unto heaven (28:10, 19); and on his return he again visited this place, "where God talked with him" (35:1-15), and there he "built an altar, and called the place El-beth-el" (q.v.). To this second occasion of God's speaking with Jacob at Bethel, Hosea (12:4,5) makes reference.

In troublous times the people went to Bethel to ask counsel of God (Judg. 20:18, 31; 21:2). Here the ark of the covenant was kept for a long time under the care of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron (20:26-28). Here also Samuel held in rotation his court of justice (1 Sam. 7:16). It was included in Israel after the kingdom was divided, and it became one of the seats of the worship of the golden calf (1 Kings 12:28-33; 13:1). Hence the prophet Hosea (Hos. 4:15; 5:8; 10:5, 8) calls it in contempt Beth-aven, i.e., "house of idols." Bethel remained an abode of priests even after the kingdom of Israel was desolated by the king of Assyria (2 Kings 17:28, 29). At length all traces of the idolatries were extirpated by Josiah, king of Judah (2 Kings 23:15-18); and the place was still in existence after the Captivity (Ezra 2:28; Neh. 7:32). It has been identified with the ruins of Beitin, a small village amid extensive ruins some 9 miles south of Shiloh.

(2.) Mount Bethel was a hilly district near Bethel (Josh. 16:1; 1 Sam. 13:2).

(3.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 8:17; 12:16).

Bethelite - a designation of Hiel (q.v.), who rebuilt Jericho and experienced the curse pronounced long before (1 Kings 16:34).

Bether - dissection or separation, certain mountains mentioned in Cant. 2:17; probably near Lebanon.

Bethesda - house of mercy, a reservoir (Gr. kolumbethra, "a swimming bath") with five porches, close to the sheep-gate or market (Neh. 3:1; John 5:2). Eusebius the historian (A.D. 330) calls it "the sheep-pool." It is also called "Bethsaida" and "Beth-zatha" (John 5:2, R.V. marg.). Under these "porches" or colonnades were usually a large number of infirm people waiting for the "troubling of the water." It is usually identified with the modern so-called Fountain of the Virgin, in the valley of the Kidron, and not far from the Pool of Siloam (q.v.); and also with the Birket Israel, a pool near the mouth of the valley which runs into the Kidron south of "St. Stephen's Gate." Others again identify it with the twin pools called the "Souterrains," under the convent of the Sisters of Zion, situated in what must have been the rock-hewn ditch between Bezetha and the fortress of Antonia. But quite recently Schick has discovered a large tank, as sketched here, situated about 100 feet north-west of St. Anne's Church, which is, as he contends, very probably the Pool of Bethesda. No certainty as to its identification, however, has as yet been arrived at. (See FOUNTAIN ¯T0001378; GIHON.)

Beth-gamul - camel-house, a city in the "plain country" of Moab denounced by the prophet (Jer. 48:23); probably the modern Um-el-Jemal, near Bozrah, one of the deserted cities of the Hauran.

Beth-gilgal - house of Gilgal, a place from which the inhabitants gathered for the purpose of celebrating the rebuilding of the walls on the return exile (Neh. 12:29). (See GILGAL.)

Beth-haccerem - house of a vineyard, a place in the tribe of Judah (Neh. 3:14) where the Benjamites were to set up a beacon when they heard the trumpet against the invading army of the Babylonians (Jer. 6:1). It is probable that this place is the modern 'Ain Karim, or "well of the vineyards," near which there is a ridge on which are cairns which may have served as beacons of old, one of which is 40 feet high and 130 in diameter.

Beth-horon - house of the hollow, or of the cavern, the name of two towns or villages (2 Chr. 8:5; 1 Chr. 7:24) in the territory of Ephraim, on the way from Jerusalem to Joppa. They are distinguished as Beth-horon "the upper" and Beth-horon "the nether." They are about 2 miles apart, the former being about 10 miles north-west of Jerusalem. Between the two places was the ascent and descent of Beth-horon, leading from Gibeon down to the western plain (Josh. 10:10, 11; 18:13, 14), down which the five kings of the Amorites were driven by Joshua in that great battle, the most important in which the Hebrews had been as yet engaged, being their first conflict with their enemies in the open field. Jehovah interposed in behalf of Israel by a terrific hailstorm, which caused more deaths among the Canaanites than did the swords of the Israelites. Beth-horon is mentioned as having been taken by Shishak, B.C. 945, in the list of his conquests, and the pass was the scene of a victory of Judas Maccabeus. (Comp. Ex. 9:19, 25; Job 38:22, 23; Ps. 18:12-14; Isa. 30:30.) The modern name of these places is Beit-ur, distinguished by el-Foka, "the upper," and el-Tahta, "the nether." The lower was at the foot of the pass, and the upper, 500 feet higher, at the top, west of Gibeon. (See GIBEON.)

Beth-jeshimoth - house of wastes, or deserts, a town near Abel-shittim, east of Jordan, in the desert of Moab, where the Israelites encamped not long before crossing the Jordan (Num. 33:49; A.V., "Bethjesimoth"). It was within the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites (Josh. 12:3).

Beth-le-Aphrah - (R.V. Micah 1:10), house of dust. The Authorized Version reads "in the house of Aphrah." This is probably the name of a town in the Shephelah, or "low country," between Joppa and Gaza.

Bethlehem - house of bread. (1.) A city in the "hill country" of Judah. It was originally called Ephrath (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11). It was also called Beth-lehem Ephratah (Micah 5:2), Beth-lehem-judah (1 Sam. 17:12), and "the city of David" (Luke 2:4). It is first noticed in Scripture as the place where Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside," directly to the north of the city (Gen. 48:7). The valley to the east was the scene of the story of Ruth the Moabitess. There are the fields in which she gleaned, and the path by which she and Naomi returned to the town. Here was David's birth-place, and here also, in after years, he was anointed as king by Samuel (1 Sam. 16:4-13); and it was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his heroes brought water for him at the risk of their lives when he was in the cave of Adullam (2 Sam. 23:13-17). But it was distinguished above every other city as the birth-place of "Him whose goings forth have been of old" (Matt. 2:6; comp. Micah 5:2). Afterwards Herod, "when he saw that he was mocked of the wise men," sent and slew "all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under" (Matt. 2:16, 18; Jer. 31:15).

Bethlehem bears the modern name of Beit-Lahm, i.e., "house of flesh." It is about 5 miles south of Jerusalem, standing at an elevation of about 2,550 feet above the sea, thus 100 feet higher than Jerusalem.

There is a church still existing, built by Constantine the Great (A.D. 330), called the "Church of the Nativity," over a grotto or cave called the "holy crypt," and said to be the "stable" in which Jesus was born. This is perhaps the oldest existing Christian church in the world. Close to it is another grotto, where Jerome the Latin father is said to have spent thirty years of his life in translating the Scriptures into Latin. (See VERSION.)

(2.) A city of Zebulun, mentioned only in Josh. 19:15. Now Beit-Lahm, a ruined village about 6 miles west-north-west of Nazareth.

Beth-peor - house of Peor; i.e., "temple of Baal-peor", a place in Moab, on the east of Jordan, opposite Jericho. It was in the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:20; Deut. 3:29; 4:46). In the "ravine" or valley over against Beth-peor Moses was probably buried (Deut. 34:6).

Beth-phage - house of the unripe fig, a village on the Mount of Olives, on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho (Matt. 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29), and very close to Bethany. It was the limit of a Sabbath-day's journey from Jerusalem, i.e., 2,000 cubits. It has been identified with the modern Kefr-et-Tur.

Bethsaida - house of fish. (1.) A town in Galilee, on the west side of the sea of Tiberias, in the "land of Gennesaret." It was the native place of Peter, Andrew, and Philip, and was frequently resorted to by Jesus (Mark 6:45; John 1:44; 12:21). It is supposed to have been at the modern 'Ain Tabighah, a bay to the north of Gennesaret.

(2.) A city near which Christ fed 5,000 (Luke 9:10; comp. John 6:17; Matt. 14:15-21), and where the blind man had his sight restored (Mark 8:22), on the east side of the lake, two miles up the Jordan. It stood within the region of Gaulonitis, and was enlarged by Philip the tetrarch, who called it "Julias," after the emperor's daughter. Or, as some have supposed, there may have been but one Bethsaida built on both sides of the lake, near where the Jordan enters it. Now the ruins et-Tel.

Beth-shean - house of security or rest, a city which belonged to Manasseh (1 Chr. 7:29), on the west of Jordan. The bodies of Saul and his sons were fastened to its walls. In Solomon's time it gave its name to a district (1 Kings 4:12). The name is found in an abridged form, Bethshan, in 1 Sam. 31:10, 12 and 2 Sam. 21:12. It is on the road from Jerusalem to Damascus, about 5 miles from the Jordan, and 14 from the south end of the Lake of Gennesaret. After the Captivity it was called Scythopolis, i.e., "the city of the Scythians," who about B.C. 640 came down from the steppes of Southern Russia and settled in different places in Syria. It is now called Beisan.

Beth-shemesh - house of the sun. (1.) A sacerdotal city in the tribe of Dan (Josh. 21:16; 1 Sam. 6:15), on the north border of Judah (Josh. 15:10). It was the scene of an encounter between Jehoash, king of Israel, and Amaziah, king of Judah, in which the latter was made prisoner (2 Kings 14:11, 13). It was afterwards taken by the Philistines (2 Chr. 28:18). It is the modern ruined Arabic village 'Ain-shems, on the north-west slopes of the mountains of Judah, 14 miles west of Jerusalem.

(2.) A city between Dothan and the Jordan, near the southern border of Issachar (Josh. 19:22), 7 1/2 miles south of Beth-shean. It is the modern Ain-esh-Shemsiyeh.

(3.) One of the fenced cities of Naphtali (Josh. 19:38), between Mount Tabor and the Jordan. Now Khurbet Shema, 3 miles west of Safed. But perhaps the same as No. 2.

(4.) An idol sanctuary in Egypt (Jer. 43:13); called by the Greeks Heliopolis, and by the Egyptians On (q.v.), Gen. 41:45.

Beth-tappuah - house of apples, a town of Judah, now Tuffuh, 5 miles west of Hebron (Josh. 15:53).

Bethuel - man of God, or virgin of God, or house of God. (1.) The son of Nahor by Milcah; nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah (Gen. 22:22, 23; 24:15, 24, 47). He appears in person only once (24:50).

(2.) A southern city of Judah (1 Chr. 4:30); called also Bethul (Josh. 19:4) and Bethel (12:16; 1 Sam. 30:27).

Bethzur - house of rock, a town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:58), about 4 miles to the north of Hebron. It was built by Rehoboam for the defence of his kingdom (2 Chr. 11:7). It stood near the modern ed-Dirweh. Its ruins are still seen on a hill which bears the name of Beit-Sur, and which commands the road from Beer-sheba and Hebron to Jerusalem from the south.

Betroth - to promise "by one's truth." Men and women were betrothed when they were engaged to be married. This usually took place a year or more before marriage. From the time of betrothal the woman was regarded as the lawful wife of the man to whom she was betrothed (Deut. 28:30; Judg. 14:2, 8; Matt. 1:18-21). The term is figuratively employed of the spiritual connection between God and his people (Hos. 2:19, 20).

Beulah - married, is used in Isa. 62:4 metaphorically as the name of Judea: "Thy land shall be married," i.e., favoured and blessed of the Lord.

Bewray - to reveal or disclose; an old English word equivalent to "betray" (Prov. 27:16; 29:24, R.V., "uttereth;" Isa. 16:3; Matt. 26:73).

Beyond - when used with reference to Jordan, signifies in the writings of Moses the west side of the river, as he wrote on the east bank (Gen. 50:10, 11; Deut. 1:1, 5; 3:8, 20; 4:46); but in the writings of Joshua, after he had crossed the river, it means the east side (Josh. 5:1; 12:7; 22:7).

Bezaleel - in the shadow of God; i.e., "under his protection", the artificer who executed the work of art in connection with the tabernacle in the wilderness (Ex. 31:2; 35:30). He was engaged principally in works of metal, wood, and stone; while Aholiab, who was associated with him and subordinate to him, had the charge of the textile fabrics (36:1, 2; 38:22). He was of the tribe of Judah, the son of Uri, and grandson of Hur (31:2). Mention is made in Ezra 10:30 of another of the same name.

Bezek - lightning. (1.) The residence of Adoni-bezek, in the lot of Judah (Judg. 1:5). It was in the mountains, not far from Jerusalem. Probably the modern Bezkah, 6 miles south-east of Lydda.

(2.) The place where Saul numbered the forces of Israel and Judah (1 Sam. 11:8); somewhere in the centre of the country, near the Jordan valley. Probably the modern Ibzik, 13 miles north-east of Shechem.

Bezer - ore of gold or silver. (1.) A city of the Reubenites; one of the three cities of refuge on the east of Jordan (Deut. 4: 43; Josh. 20:8). It has been identified with the modern ruined village of Burazin, some 12 miles north of Heshbon; also with Kasur-el-Besheir, 2 miles south-west of Dibon.

(2.) A descendant of Asher (1 Chr. 7:37).

Bible - Bible, the English form of the Greek name Biblia, meaning "books," the name which in the fifth century began to be given to the entire collection of sacred books, the "Library of Divine Revelation." The name Bible was adopted by Wickliffe, and came gradually into use in our English language. The Bible consists of sixty-six different books, composed by many different writers, in three different languages, under different circumstances; writers of almost every social rank, statesmen and peasants, kings, herdsmen, fishermen, priests, tax-gatherers, tentmakers; educated and uneducated, Jews and Gentiles; most of them unknown to each other, and writing at various periods during the space of about 1600 years: and yet, after all, it is only one book dealing with only one subject in its numberless aspects and relations, the subject of man's redemption.

It is divided into the Old Testament, containing thirty-nine books, and the New Testament, containing twenty-seven books. The names given to the Old in the writings of the New are "the scriptures" (Matt. 21:42), "scripture" (2 Pet. 1:20), "the holy scriptures" (Rom. 1:2), "the law" (John 12:34), "the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" (Luke 24:44), "the law and the prophets" (Matt. 5:17), "the old covenant" (2 Cor. 3:14, R.V.). There is a break of 400 years between the Old Testament and the New. (See APOCRYPHA.)

The Old Testament is divided into three parts:, 1. The Law (Torah), consisting of the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses. 2. The Prophets, consisting of (1) the former, namely, Joshua, Judges, the Books of Samuel, and the Books of Kings; (2) the latter, namely, the greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets. 3. The Hagiographa, or holy writings, including the rest of the books. These were ranked in three divisions:, (1) The Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, distinguished by the Hebrew name, a word formed of the initial letters of these books, emeth, meaning truth. (2) Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, called the five rolls, as being written for the synagogue use on five separate rolls. (3) Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles. Between the Old and the New Testament no addition was made to the revelation God had already given. The period of New Testament revelation, extending over a century, began with the appearance of John the Baptist.

The New Testament consists of (1) the historical books, viz., the Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles; (2) the Epistles; and (3) the book of prophecy, the Revelation.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses is altogether of human invention, designed to facilitate reference to it. The ancient Jews divided the Old Testament into certain sections for use in the synagogue service, and then at a later period, in the ninth century A.D., into verses. Our modern system of chapters for all the books of the Bible was introduced by Cardinal Hugo about the middle of the thirteenth century (he died 1263). The system of verses for the New Testament was introduced by Stephens in 1551, and generally adopted, although neither Tyndale's nor Coverdale's English translation of the Bible has verses. The division is not always wisely made, yet it is very useful. (See VERSION.)

Bier - the frame on which dead bodies were conveyed to the grave (Luke 7:14).

Bigtha - garden, or gift of fortune, one of the seven eunuchs or chamberlains who had charge of the harem of Ahasuerus (Esther 1:10).

Bigthan - one of the eunuchs who "kept the door" in the court of Ahasuerus. With Teresh he conspired against the king's life. Mordecai detected the conspiracy, and the culprits were hanged (Esther 2:21-23; 6:1-3).

Bildad - son of contention, one of Job's friends. He is called "the Shuhite," probably as belonging to Shuah, a district in Arabia, in which Shuah, the sixth son of Abraham by Keturah, settled (Gen. 25:2). He took part in each of the three controversies into which Job's friends entered with him (Job 8:1; 18:1; 25:1), and delivered three speeches, very severe and stern in their tone, although less violent than those of Zophar, but more so than those of Eliphaz.

Bilgah - cheerful. (1.) The head of the fifteenth sacerdotal course for the temple service (1 Chr. 24:14). (2.) A priest who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:5, 18).

Bilhah - faltering; bashful, Rachel's handmaid, whom she gave to Jacob (Gen. 29:29). She was the mother of Dan and Naphtali (Gen. 30:3-8). Reuben was cursed by his father for committing adultry with her (35:22; 49:4). He was deprived of the birth-right, which was given to the sons of Joseph.

Bilshan - son of the tongue; i.e., "eloquent", a man of some note who returned from the Captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7).

Bird - Birds are divided in the Mosaic law into two classes, (1) the clean (Lev. 1:14-17; 5:7-10; 14:4-7), which were offered in sacrifice; and (2) the unclean (Lev. 11:13-20). When offered in sacrifice, they were not divided as other victims were (Gen. 15:10). They are mentioned also as an article of food (Deut. 14:11). The art of snaring wild birds is referred to (Ps. 124:7; Prov. 1:17; 7:23; Jer. 5:27). Singing birds are mentioned in Ps. 104:12; Eccl. 12:4. Their timidity is alluded to (Hos. 11:11). The reference in Ps. 84:3 to the swallow and the sparrow may be only a comparison equivalent to, "What her house is to the sparrow, and her nest to the swallow, that thine altars are to my soul."

Birsha - son of wickedness, a king of Gomorrah whom Abraham succoured in the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:2).

Birth - As soon as a child was born it was washed, and rubbed with salt (Ezek. 16:4), and then swathed with bandages (Job 38:9; Luke 2:7, 12). A Hebrew mother remained forty days in seclusion after the birth of a son, and after the birth of a daughter double that number of days. At the close of that period she entered into the tabernacle or temple and offered up a sacrifice of purification (Lev. 12:1-8; Luke 2:22). A son was circumcised on the eighth day after his birth, being thereby consecrated to God (Gen. 17:10-12; comp. Rom. 4:11). Seasons of misfortune are likened to the pains of a woman in travail, and seasons of prosperity to the joy that succeeds child-birth (Isa. 13:8; Jer. 4:31; John 16:21, 22). The natural birth is referred to as the emblem of the new birth (John 3:3-8; Gal. 6:15; Titus 3:5, etc.).

Birth-day - The observance of birth-days was common in early times (Job 1:4, 13, 18). They were specially celebrated in the land of Egypt (Gen. 40:20). There is no recorded instance in Scripture of the celebration of birth-days among the Jews. On the occasion of Herod's birth-day John the Baptist was beheaded (Matt. 14:6).

Birthright - (1.) This word denotes the special privileges and advantages belonging to the first-born son among the Jews. He became the priest of the family. Thus Reuben was the first-born of the patriarchs, and so the priesthood of the tribes belonged to him. That honour was, however, transferred by God from Reuben to Levi (Num. 3:12, 13; 8:18).

(2.) The first-born son had allotted to him also a double portion of the paternal inheritance (Deut. 21:15-17). Reuben was, because of his undutiful conduct, deprived of his birth-right (Gen. 49:4; 1 Chr. 5:1). Esau transferred his birth-right to Jacob (Gen. 25:33).

(3.) The first-born inherited the judicial authority of his father, whatever it might be (2 Chr. 21:3). By divine appointment, however, David excluded Adonijah in favour of Solomon.

(4.) The Jews attached a sacred importance to the rank of "first-born" and "first-begotten" as applied to the Messiah (Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:4-6). As first-born he has an inheritance superior to his brethren, and is the alone true priest.

Bishop - an overseer. In apostolic times, it is quite manifest that there was no difference as to order between bishops and elders or presbyters (Acts 20:17-28; 1 Pet. 5:1, 2; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3). The term bishop is never once used to denote a different office from that of elder or presbyter. These different names are simply titles of the same office, "bishop" designating the function, namely, that of oversight, and "presbyter" the dignity appertaining to the office. Christ is figuratively called "the bishop [episcopos] of souls" (1 Pet. 2:25).

Bit - the curb put into the mouths of horses to restrain them. The Hebrew word (metheg) so rendered in Ps. 32:9 is elsewhere translated "bridle" (2 Kings 19:28; Prov. 26:3; Isa. 37:29). Bits were generally made of bronze or iron, but sometimes also of gold or silver. In James 3:3 the Authorized Version translates the Greek word by "bits," but the Revised Version by "bridles."

Bith-ron - the broken or divided place, a district in the Arabah or Jordan valley, on the east of the river (2 Sam. 2:29). It was probably the designation of the region in general, which is broken and intersected by ravines.

Bithynia - a province in Asia Minor, to the south of the Euxine and Propontis. Christian congregations were here formed at an early time (1 Pet. 1:1). Paul was prevented by the Spirit from entering this province (Acts 16:7). It is noted in church history as the province ruled over by Pliny as Roman proconsul, who was perplexed as to the course he should take with the numerous Christians brought before his tribunal on account of their profession of Christianity and their conduct, and wrote to Trajan, the emperor, for instructions (A.D. 107).

Bitter - Bitterness is symbolical of affliction, misery, and servitude (Ex. 1:14; Ruth 1:20; Jer. 9:15). The Chaldeans are called the "bitter and hasty nation" (Hab. 1:6). The "gall of bitterness" expresses a state of great wickedness (Acts 8:23). A "root of bitterness" is a wicked person or a dangerous sin (Heb. 12:15).

The Passover was to be eaten with "bitter herbs" (Ex. 12:8; Num. 9:11). The kind of herbs so designated is not known. Probably they were any bitter herbs obtainable at the place and time when the Passover was celebrated. They represented the severity of the servitude under which the people groaned; and have been regarded also as typical of the sufferings of Christ.

Bittern - is found three times in connection with the desolations to come upon Babylon, Idumea, and Nineveh (Isa. 14:23; 34:11; Zeph. 2:14). This bird belongs to the class of cranes. Its scientific name is Botaurus stellaris. It is a solitary bird, frequenting marshy ground. The Hebrew word (kippod) thus rendered in the Authorized Version is rendered "porcupine" in the Revised Version. But in the passages noted the kippod is associated with birds, with pools of water, and with solitude and desolation. This favours the idea that not the "porcupine" but the "bittern" is really intended by the word.

Bitumen - Gen. 11:3, R.V., margin, rendered in the A.V. "slime"), a mineral pitch. With this the ark was pitched (6:14. See also Ex. 2:3.) (See SLIME.)

Black - properly the absence of all colour. In Prov. 7:9 the Hebrew word means, as in the margin of the Revised Version, "the pupil of the eye." It is translated "apple" of the eye in Deut. 32:10; Ps. 17:8; Prov. 7:2. It is a different word which is rendered "black" in Lev. 13:31,37; Cant. 1:5; 5:11; and Zech. 6:2, 6. It is uncertain what the "black marble" of Esther 1:6 was which formed a part of the mosaic pavement.

Blade - applied to the glittering point of a spear (Job 39:23) or sword (Nah. 3:3), the blade of a dagger (Judg. 3:22); the "shoulder blade" (Job 31:22); the "blade" of cereals (Matt. 13:26).

Blains - occurs only in connection with the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. 9:9, 10). In Deut. 28:27, 35, it is called "the botch of Egypt." It seems to have been the fearful disease of black leprosy, a kind of elephantiasis, producing burning ulcers.

Blasphemy - In the sense of speaking evil of God this word is found in Ps. 74:18; Isa. 52:5; Rom. 2:24; Rev. 13:1, 6; 16:9, 11, 21. It denotes also any kind of calumny, or evil-speaking, or abuse (1 Kings 21:10; Acts 13:45; 18:6, etc.). Our Lord was accused of blasphemy when he claimed to be the Son of God (Matt. 26:65; comp. Matt. 9:3; Mark 2:7). They who deny his Messiahship blaspheme Jesus (Luke 22:65; John 10:36).

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost (Matt. 12:31, 32; Mark 3:28, 29; Luke 12:10) is regarded by some as a continued and obstinate rejection of the gospel, and hence is an unpardonable sin, simply because as long as a sinner remains in unbelief he voluntarily excludes himself from pardon. Others regard the expression as designating the sin of attributing to the power of Satan those miracles which Christ performed, or generally those works which are the result of the Spirit's agency.

Blastus - chamberlain to king Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12:20). Such persons generally had great influence with their masters.

Blemish - imperfection or bodily deformity excluding men from the priesthood, and rendering animals unfit to be offered in sacrifice (Lev. 21:17-23; 22:19-25). The Christian church, as justified in Christ, is "without blemish" (Eph. 5:27). Christ offered himself a sacrifice "without blemish," acceptable to God (1 Pet. 1:19).

Bless - (1.) God blesses his people when he bestows on them some gift temporal or spiritual (Gen. 1:22; 24:35; Job 42:12; Ps. 45:2; 104:24, 35).

(2.) We bless God when we thank him for his mercies (Ps. 103:1, 2; 145:1, 2).

(3.) A man blesses himself when he invokes God's blessing (Isa. 65:16), or rejoices in God's goodness to him (Deut. 29:19; Ps. 49:18).

(4.) One blesses another when he expresses good wishes or offers prayer to God for his welfare (Gen. 24:60; 31:55; 1 Sam. 2:20). Sometimes blessings were uttered under divine inspiration, as in the case of Noah, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses (Gen. 9:26, 27; 27:28, 29, 40; 48:15-20; 49:1-28; Deut. 33). The priests were divinely authorized to bless the people (Deut. 10:8; Num. 6:22-27). We have many examples of apostolic benediction (2 Cor. 13:14; Eph. 6:23, 24; 2 Thess. 3:16, 18; Heb. 13:20, 21; 1 Pet. 5:10, 11).

(5.) Among the Jews in their thank-offerings the master of the feast took a cup of wine in his hand, and after having blessed God for it and for other mercies then enjoyed, handed it to his guests, who all partook of it. Ps. 116:13 refers to this custom. It is also alluded to in 1 Cor. 10:16, where the apostle speaks of the "cup of blessing."

Blind - Blind beggars are frequently mentioned (Matt. 9:27; 12:22; 20:30; John 5:3). The blind are to be treated with compassion (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). Blindness was sometimes a punishment for disobedience (1 Sam. 11:2; Jer. 39:7), sometimes the effect of old age (Gen. 27:1; 1 Kings 14:4; 1 Sam. 4:15). Conquerors sometimes blinded their captives (2 Kings 25:7; 1 Sam. 11:2). Blindness denotes ignorance as to spiritual things (Isa. 6:10; 42:18, 19; Matt. 15:14; Eph. 4:18). The opening of the eyes of the blind is peculiar to the Messiah (Isa. 29:18). Elymas was smitten with blindness at Paul's word (Acts 13:11).

Blood - (1.) As food, prohibited in Gen. 9:4, where the use of animal food is first allowed. Comp. Deut. 12:23; Lev. 3:17; 7:26; 17:10-14. The injunction to abstain from blood is renewed in the decree of the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:29). It has been held by some, and we think correctly, that this law of prohibition was only ceremonial and temporary; while others regard it as still binding on all. Blood was eaten by the Israelites after the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 14:32-34).

(2.) The blood of sacrifices was caught by the priest in a basin, and then sprinkled seven times on the altar; that of the passover on the doorposts and lintels of the houses (Ex. 12; Lev. 4:5-7; 16:14-19). At the giving of the law (Ex. 24:8) the blood of the sacrifices was sprinkled on the people as well as on the altar, and thus the people were consecrated to God, or entered into covenant with him, hence the blood of the covenant (Matt. 26:28; Heb. 9:19, 20; 10:29; 13:20).

(3.) Human blood. The murderer was to be punished (Gen. 9:5). The blood of the murdered "crieth for vengeance" (Gen. 4:10). The "avenger of blood" was the nearest relative of the murdered, and he was required to avenge his death (Num. 35:24, 27). No satisfaction could be made for the guilt of murder (Num. 35:31).

(4.) Blood used metaphorically to denote race (Acts 17:26), and as a symbol of slaughter (Isa. 34:3). To "wash the feet in blood" means to gain a great victory (Ps. 58:10). Wine, from its red colour, is called "the blood of the grape" (Gen. 49:11). Blood and water issued from our Saviour's side when it was pierced by the Roman soldier (John 19:34). This has led pathologists to the conclusion that the proper cause of Christ's death was rupture of the heart. (Comp. Ps. 69:20.)

Bloody sweat - the sign and token of our Lord's great agony (Luke 22:44).

Blot - a stain or reproach (Job 31:7; Prov. 9:7). To blot out sin is to forgive it (Ps. 51:1, 9; Isa. 44:22; Acts 3:19). Christ's blotting out the handwriting of ordinances was his fulfilling the law in our behalf (Col. 2:14).

Blue - generally associated with purple (Ex. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36, etc.). It is supposed to have been obtained from a shellfish of the Mediterranean, the Helix ianthina of Linnaeus. The robe of the high priest's ephod was to be all of this colour (Ex. 28:31), also the loops of the curtains (26:4) and the ribbon of the breastplate (28:28). Blue cloths were also made for various sacred purposes (Num. 4:6, 7, 9, 11, 12). (See COLOUR.)

Boanerges - sons of thunder, a surname given by our Lord to James and John (Mark 3:17) on account of their fervid and impetuous temper (Luke 9:54).

Boar - occurs only in Ps. 80:13. The same Hebrew word is elsewhere rendered "swine" (Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8; Prov. 11:22; Isa. 65:4; 66:3, 17). The Hebrews abhorred swine's flesh, and accordingly none of these animals were reared, except in the district beyond the Sea of Galilee. In the psalm quoted above the powers that destroyed the Jewish nation are compared to wild boars and wild beasts of the field.

Boaz - alacrity. (1.) The husband of Ruth, a wealthy Bethlehemite. By the "levirate law" the duty devolved on him of marrying Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth 4:1-13). He was a kinsman of Mahlon, her first husband.

(2.) The name given (for what reason is unknown) to one of the two (the other was called Jachin) brazen pillars which Solomon erected in the court of the temple (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chr. 3:17). These pillars were broken up and carried to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.

Bochim - weepers, a place where the angel of the Lord reproved the Israelites for entering into a league with the people of the land. This caused them bitterly to weep, and hence the name of the place (Judg. 2:1, 5). It lay probably at the head of one of the valleys between Gilgal and Shiloh.

Boil - (rendered "botch" in Deut. 28:27, 35), an aggravated ulcer, as in the case of Hezekiah (2 Kings 20:7; Isa. 38:21) or of the Egyptians (Ex. 9:9, 10, 11; Deut. 28:27, 35). It designates the disease of Job (2:7), which was probably the black leprosy.

Bolled - (Ex. 9:31), meaning "swollen or podded for seed," was adopted in the Authorized Version from the version of Coverdale (1535). The Revised Version has in the margin "was in bloom," which is the more probable rendering of the Hebrew word. It is the fact that in Egypt when barley is in ear (about February) flax is blossoming.

Bolster - The Hebrew word kebir, rendered "pillow" in 1 Sam. 19:13, 16, but in Revised Version marg. "quilt" or "network," probably means some counterpane or veil intended to protect the head of the sleeper. A different Hebrew word (meraashoth') is used for "bolster" (1 Sam. 26:7, 11, 16). It is rightly rendered in Revised Version "at his head." In Gen. 28:11, 18 the Authorized Version renders it "for his pillows," and the Revised Version "under his head." In Ezek. 13:18, 20 another Hebrew word (kesathoth) is used, properly denoting "cushions" or "pillows," as so rendered both in the Authorized and the Revised Version.

Bond - an obligation of any kind (Num. 30:2, 4, 12). The word means also oppression or affliction (Ps. 116:16; Phil. 1:7). Christian love is the "bond of perfectness" (Col. 3:14), and the influences of the Spirit are the "bond of peace" (Eph. 4:3).

Bondage - of Israel in Egypt (Ex. 2:23, 25; 5), which is called the "house of bondage" (13:3; 20:2). This word is used also with reference to the captivity in Babylon (Isa. 14:3), and the oppression of the Persian king (Ezra 9:8, 9).

Bonnet - (Heb. peer), Ex. 39:28 (R.V., "head-tires"); Ezek. 44:18 (R.V., "tires"), denotes properly a turban worn by priests, and in Isa. 3:20 (R.V., "head-tires") a head-dress or tiara worn by females. The Hebrew word so rendered literally means an ornament, as in Isa. 61:10 (R.V., "garland"), and in Ezek. 24:17, 23 "tire" (R.V., "head-tire"). It consisted of a piece of cloth twisted about the head. In Ex. 28:40; 29:9 it is the translation of a different Hebrew word (migba'ah), which denotes the turban (R.V., "head-tire") of the common priest as distinguished from the mitre of the high priest. (See MITRE.)

Book - This word has a comprehensive meaning in Scripture. In the Old Testament it is the rendering of the Hebrew word sepher, which properly means a "writing," and then a "volume" (Ex. 17:14; Deut. 28:58; 29:20; Job 19:23) or "roll of a book" (Jer. 36:2, 4).

Books were originally written on skins, on linen or cotton cloth, and on Egyptian papyrus, whence our word "paper." The leaves of the book were generally written in columns, designated by a Hebrew word properly meaning "doors" and "valves" (Jer. 36:23, R.V., marg. "columns").

Among the Hebrews books were generally rolled up like our maps, or if very long they were rolled from both ends, forming two rolls (Luke 4:17-20). Thus they were arranged when the writing was on flexible materials; but if the writing was on tablets of wood or brass or lead, then the several tablets were bound together by rings through which a rod was passed.

A sealed book is one whose contents are secret (Isa. 29:11; Rev. 5:1-3). To "eat" a book (Jer. 15:16; Ezek. 2:8-10; 3:1-3; Rev. 10:9) is to study its contents carefully.

The book of judgment (Dan. 7:10) refers to the method of human courts of justice as illustrating the proceedings which will take place at the day of God's final judgment.

The book of the wars of the Lord (Num. 21:14), the book of Jasher (Josh. 10:13), and the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chr. 25:26), were probably ancient documents known to the Hebrews, but not forming a part of the canon.

The book of life (Ps. 69:28) suggests the idea that as the redeemed form a community or citizenship (Phil. 3:20; 4:3), a catalogue of the citizens' names is preserved (Luke 10:20; Rev. 20:15). Their names are registered in heaven (Luke 10:20; Rev. 3:5).

The book of the covenant (Ex. 24:7), containing Ex. 20:22-23:33, is the first book actually mentioned as a part of the written word. It contains a series of laws, civil, social, and religious, given to Moses at Sinai immediately after the delivery of the decalogue. These were written in this "book."

Booth - a hut made of the branches of a tree. In such tabernacles Jacob sojourned for a season at a place named from this circumstance Succoth (Gen. 33:17). Booths were erected also at the feast of Tabernacles (q.v.), Lev. 23:42, 43, which commemorated the abode of the Israelites in the wilderness.

Booty - captives or cattle or objects of value taken in war. In Canaan all that breathed were to be destroyed (Deut. 20: 16). The "pictures and images" of the Canaanites were to be destroyed also (Num. 33:52). The law of booty as to its division is laid down in Num. 31:26-47. David afterwards introduced a regulation that the baggage-guard should share the booty equally with the soldiers engaged in battle. He also devoted of the spoils of war for the temple (1 Sam. 30:24-26; 2 Sam. 8:11; 1 Chr. 26:27).

Borrow - The Israelites "borrowed" from the Egyptians (Ex. 12:35, R.V., "asked") in accordance with a divine command (3:22; 11:2). But the word (sha'al) so rendered here means simply and always to "request" or "demand." The Hebrew had another word which is properly translated "borrow" in Deut. 28:12; Ps. 37:21. It was well known that the parting was final. The Egyptians were so anxious to get the Israelites away out of their land that "they let them have what they asked" (Ex. 12:36, R.V.), or literally "made them to ask," urged them to take whatever they desired and depart. (See LOAN.)

Bosom - In the East objects are carried in the bosom which Europeans carry in the pocket. To have in one's bosom indicates kindness, secrecy, or intimacy (Gen. 16:5; 2 Sam. 12:8). Christ is said to have been in "the bosom of the Father," i.e., he had the most perfect knowledge of the Father, had the closest intimacy with him (John 1:18). John (13:23) was "leaning on Jesus' bosom" at the last supper. Our Lord carries his lambs in his bosom, i.e., has a tender, watchful care over them (Isa. 40:11).

Bosor - the Chaldee or Aramaic form of the name Beor, the father of Balaam (2 Pet. 2:15).

Bosses - the projecting parts of a shield (Job 15:26). The Hebrew word thus rendered means anything convex or arched, and hence the back, as of animals.

Botch - the name given in Deut. 28:27, 35 to one of the Egyptian plagues (Ex. 9:9). The word so translated is usually rendered "boil" (q.v.).

Bottle - a vessel made of skins for holding wine (Josh. 9:4. 13; 1 Sam. 16:20; Matt. 9:17; Mark 2:22; Luke 5:37, 38), or milk (Judg. 4:19), or water (Gen. 21:14, 15, 19), or strong drink (Hab. 2:15).

Earthenware vessels were also similarly used (Jer. 19:1-10; 1 Kings 14:3; Isa. 30:14). In Job 32:19 (comp. Matt. 9:17; Luke 5:37, 38; Mark 2:22) the reference is to a wine-skin ready to burst through the fermentation of the wine. "Bottles of wine" in the Authorized Version of Hos. 7:5 is properly rendered in the Revised Version by "the heat of wine," i.e., the fever of wine, its intoxicating strength.

The clouds are figuratively called the "bottles of heaven" (Job 38:37). A bottle blackened or shrivelled by smoke is referred to in Ps. 119:83 as an image to which the psalmist likens himself.

Bow - The bow was in use in early times both in war and in the chase (Gen. 21:20; 27:3; 48:22). The tribe of Benjamin were famous for the use of the bow (1 Chr. 8:40; 12:2; 2 Chr. 14:8; 17:17); so also were the Elamites (Isa. 22:6) and the Lydians (Jer. 46:9). The Hebrew word commonly used for bow means properly to tread (1 Chr. 5:18; 8:40), and hence it is concluded that the foot was employed in bending the bow. Bows of steel (correctly "copper") are mentioned (2 Sam. 22:35; Ps. 18:34).

The arrows were carried in a quiver (Gen. 27:3; Isa. 22:6; 49:2; Ps. 127:5). They were apparently sometimes shot with some burning material attached to them (Ps. 120:4).

The bow is a symbol of victory (Ps. 7:12). It denotes also falsehood, deceit (Ps. 64:3, 4; Hos. 7:16; Jer. 9:3).

"The use of the bow" in 2 Sam. 1:18 (A.V.) ought to be "the song of the bow," as in the Revised Version.

Bowels - (Phil. 1:8; 2:1; Col. 3:12), compassionate feelings; R.V., "tender mercies."

Bowing - a mode of showing respect. Abraham "bowed himself to the people of the land" (Gen. 23:7); so Jacob to Esau (Gen. 33:3); and the brethren of Joseph before him as the governor of the land (Gen. 43:28). Bowing is also frequently mentioned as an act of adoration to idols (Josh. 23:7; 2 Kings 5:18; Judg. 2:19; Isa. 44:15), and to God (Josh. 5:14; Ps. 22:29; 72:9; Micah 6:6; Ps. 95:6; Eph. 3:14).

Bowl - The sockets of the lamps of the golden candlestick of the tabernacle are called bowls (Ex. 25:31, 33, 34; 37:17, 19, 20); the same word so rendered being elsewhere rendered "cup" (Gen. 44:2, 12, 16), and wine "pot" (Jer. 35:5). The reservoir for oil, from which pipes led to each lamp in Zechariah's vision of the candlestick, is called also by this name (Zech. 4:2, 3); so also are the vessels used for libations (Ex. 25:29; 37:16).

Box - for holding oil or perfumery (Mark 14:3). It was of the form of a flask or bottle. The Hebrew word (pak) used for it is more appropriately rendered "vial" in 1 Sam. 10:1, and should also be so rendered in 2 Kings 9:1, where alone else it occurs.

Box-tree - (Heb. teashshur), mentioned in Isa. 60:13; 41:19, was, according to some, a species of cedar growing in Lebanon. The words of Ezek. 27:6 literally translated are, "Thy benches they have made of ivory, the daughter of the ashur tree," i.e., inlaid with ashur wood. The ashur is the box-tree, and accordingly the Revised Version rightly reads "inlaid in box wood." This is the Buxus sempervirens of botanists. It is remarkable for the beauty of its evergreen foliage and for the utility of its hard and durable wood.

Bozrah - enclosure; fortress. (1.) The city of Jobab, one of the early Edomite kings (Gen. 36:33). This place is mentioned by the prophets in later times (Isa. 34:6; Jer. 49:13; Amos 1:12; Micah 2:12). Its modern representative is el-Busseireh. It lies in the mountain district of Petra, 20 miles to the south-east of the Dead Sea.

(2.) A Moabite city in the "plain country" (Jer. 48:24), i.e., on the high level down on the east of the Dead Sea. It is probably the modern Buzrah.

Bracelet - (1.) Anklets (Num. 31:50; 2 Sam. 1:10), and with reference to men.

(2.) The rendering of a Hebrew word meaning fasteners, found in Gen. 24:22, 30, 47.

(3.) In Isa. 3:19, the rendering of a Hebrew word meaning chains, i.e., twisted or chain-like bracelets.

(4.) In Ex. 35:22 it designates properly a clasp for fastening the dress of females. Some interpret it as a nose-ring.

(5.) In Gen. 38:18, 25, the rendering of a Hebrew word meaning "thread," and may denote the ornamental cord with which the signet was suspended from the neck of the wearer.

Bracelets were worn by men as well as by women (Cant. 5:14, R.V.). They were of many various forms. The weight of those presented by Eliezer to Rebekah was ten shekels (Gen. 24:22).

Bramble - (1.) Hebrew atad, Judg. 9:14; rendered "thorn," Ps. 58:9. The LXX. and Vulgate render by rhamnus, a thorny shrub common in Palestine, resembling the hawthorn.

(2.) Hebrew hoah, Isa. 34:13 (R.V. "thistles"); "thickets" in 1 Sam. 13:6; "thistles" in 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chr. 25:18, Job 31:40; "thorns" in 2 Chr. 33:11, Cant. 2:2, Hos. 9:6. The word may be regarded as denoting the common thistle, of which there are many species which encumber the corn-fields of Palestine. (See THORNS.)

Branch - a symbol of kings descended from royal ancestors (Ezek. 17:3, 10; Dan. 11:7); of prosperity (Job 8:16); of the Messiah, a branch out of the root of the stem of Jesse (Isa. 11:1), the "beautiful branch" (4:2), a "righteous branch" (Jer. 23:5), "the Branch" (Zech. 3:8; 6:12).

Disciples are branches of the true vine (John 15:5, 6). "The branch of the terrible ones" (Isa. 25:5) is rightly translated in the Revised Version "the song of the terrible ones," i.e., the song of victory shall be brought low by the destruction of Babylon and the return of the Jews from captivity.

The "abominable branch" is a tree on which a malefactor has been hanged (Isa. 14:19). The "highest branch" in Ezek. 17:3 represents Jehoiakim the king.

Brass - which is an alloy of copper and zinc, was not known till the thirteenth century. What is designated by this word in Scripture is properly copper (Deut. 8:9). It was used for fetters (Judg. 16:21; 2 Kings 25:7), for pieces of armour (1 Sam. 17:5, 6), for musical instruments (1 Chr. 15:19; 1 Cor. 13:1), and for money (Matt. 10:9).

It is a symbol of insensibility and obstinacy in sin (Isa. 48:4; Jer. 6:28; Ezek. 22:18), and of strength (Ps. 107:16; Micah 4:13).

The Macedonian empire is described as a kingdom of brass (Dan. 2:39). The "mountains of brass" Zechariah (6:1) speaks of have been supposed to represent the immutable decrees of God.

The serpent of brass was made by Moses at the command of God (Num. 21:4-9), and elevated on a pole, so that it might be seen by all the people when wounded by the bite of the serpents that were sent to them as a punishment for their murmurings against God and against Moses. It was afterwards carried by the Jews into Canaan, and preserved by them till the time of Hezekiah, who caused it to be at length destroyed because it began to be viewed by the people with superstitious reverence (2 Kings 18:4). (See NEHUSHTAN.)

The brazen serpent is alluded to by our Lord in John 3:14, 15. (See SERPENT.)

Bravery - (Isa. 3:18), an old English word meaning comeliness or beauty.

Breach - an opening in a wall (1 Kings 11:27; 2 Kings 12:5); the fracture of a limb (Lev. 24:20), and hence the expression, "Heal, etc." (Ps. 60:2). Judg. 5:17, a bay or harbour; R.V., "by his creeks."

Bread - among the Jews was generally made of wheat (Ex. 29:2; Judg. 6:19), though also sometimes of other grains (Gen. 14:18; Judg. 7:13). Parched grain was sometimes used for food without any other preparation (Ruth 2:14).

Bread was prepared by kneading in wooden bowls or "kneading troughs" (Gen. 18:6; Ex. 12:34; Jer. 7:18). The dough was mixed with leaven and made into thin cakes, round or oval, and then baked. The bread eaten at the Passover was always unleavened (Ex. 12:15-20; Deut. 16:3). In the towns there were public ovens, which were much made use of for baking bread; there were also bakers by trade (Hos. 7:4; Jer. 37:21). Their ovens were not unlike those of modern times. But sometimes the bread was baked by being placed on the ground that had been heated by a fire, and by covering it with the embers (1 Kings 19:6). This was probably the mode in which Sarah prepared bread on the occasion referred to in Gen. 18:6.

In Lev. 2 there is an account of the different kinds of bread and cakes used by the Jews. (See BAKE.)

The shew-bread (q.v.) consisted of twelve loaves of unleavened bread prepared and presented hot on the golden table every Sabbath. They were square or oblong, and represented the twelve tribes of Israel. The old loaves were removed every Sabbath, and were to be eaten only by the priests in the court of the sanctuary (Ex. 25:30; Lev. 24:8; 1 Sam. 21:1-6; Matt. 12:4).

The word bread is used figuratively in such expressions as "bread of sorrows" (Ps. 127:2), "bread of tears" (80:5), i.e., sorrow and tears are like one's daily bread, they form so great a part in life. The bread of "wickedness" (Prov. 4:17) and "of deceit" (20:17) denote in like manner that wickedness and deceit are a part of the daily life.

Breastplate - (1.) That piece of ancient armour that protected the breast. This word is used figuratively in Eph. 6:14 and Isa. 59:17. (See ARMOUR.)

(2.) An ornament covering the breast of the high priest, first mentioned in Ex. 25:7. It was made of embroidered cloth, set with four rows of precious stones, three in each row. On each stone was engraved the name of one of the twelve tribes (Ex. 28:15-29; 39:8-21). It was in size about ten inches square. The two upper corners were fastened to the ephod by blue ribbons. It was not to be "loosed from the ephod" (Ex. 28:28). The lower corners were fastened to the girdle of the priest. As it reminded the priest of his representative character, it was called the memorial (28:29). It was also called the breastplate of judgment (28:15). (See PRIEST.)

Breeches - (Ex. 28:42), rather linen drawers, reaching from the waist to a little above the knee, worn by the priests (Ezek. 44:17, 18).

Bribe - None to be taken; "for the gift maketh open eyes blind, and perverteth the cause of the righteous" (Ex. 23:8, literally rendered).

Bricks - the making of, formed the chief labour of the Israelites in Egypt (Ex. 1:13, 14). Those found among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh are about a foot square and four inches thick. They were usually dried in the sun, though also sometimes in kilns (2 Sam. 12:31; Jer. 43:9; Nah. 3:14). (See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.)

The bricks used in the tower of Babel were burnt bricks, cemented in the building by bitumen (Gen. 11:3).

Bride - frequently used in the ordinary sense (Isa. 49:18; 61:10, etc.). The relation between Christ and his church is set forth under the figure of that between a bridegroom and bride (John 3:29). The church is called "the bride" (Rev. 21:9; 22:17). Compare parable of the Ten Virgins (Matt. 25:1-13).

Bridle - Three Hebrew words are thus rendered in the Authorized Version. (1.) Heb. mahsom' signifies a muzzle or halter or bridle, by which the rider governs his horse (Ps.39:1).

(2.) Me'theg, rendered also "bit" in Ps. 32:9, which is its proper meaning. Found in 2 Kings 19:28, where the restraints of God's providence are metaphorically styled his "bridle" and "hook." God's placing a "bridle in the jaws of the people" (Isa. 30:28; 37:29) signifies his preventing the Assyrians from carrying out their purpose against Jerusalem.

(3.) Another word, re'sen, was employed to represent a halter or bridle-rein, as used Ps. 32:9; Isa. 30:28. In Job 30:11 the restraints of law and humanity are called a bridle.

Brier - This word occurs frequently, and is the translation of several different terms. (1.) Micah 7:4, it denotes a species of thorn shrub used for hedges. In Prov. 15:19 the word is rendered "thorn" (Heb. hedek, "stinging"), supposed by some to be what is called the "apple of Sodom" (q.v.).

(2.) Ezek. 28:24, sallon', properly a "prickle," such as is found on the shoots of the palm tree.

(3.) Isa. 55:13, probably simply a thorny bush. Some, following the Vulgate Version, regard it as the "nettle."

(4.) Isa. 5:6; 7:23-25, etc., frequently used to denote thorny shrubs in general. In 10:17; 27:4, it means troublesome men.

(5.) In Heb. 6:8 the Greek word (tribolos) so rendered means "three-pronged," and denotes the land caltrop, a low throny shrub resembling in its spikes the military "crow-foot." Comp. Matt. 7:16, "thistle."

Brigandine - (Jer. 46:4; 51:3), an obsolete English word denoting a scale coat of armour, or habergeon, worn by light-armed "brigands." The Revised Version has "coat of mail."

Brimstone - an inflammable mineral substance found in quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea. The cities of the plain were destroyed by a rain of fire and brimstone (Gen. 19:24, 25). In Isa. 34:9 allusion is made to the destruction of these cities. This word figuratively denotes destruction or punishment (Job 18:15; Isa. 30:33; 34:9; Ps. 11:6; Ezek. 38:22). It is used to express the idea of excruciating torment in Rev. 14:10; 19:20; 20:10.

Brook - a torrent. (1.) Applied to small streams, as the Arnon, Jabbok, etc. Isaiah (15:7) speaks of the "book of the willows," probably the Wady-el-Asha. (2.) It is also applied to winter torrents (Job 6:15; Num. 34:5; Josh. 15:4, 47), and to the torrent-bed or wady as well as to the torrent itself (Num. 13:23; 1 Kings 17:3). (3.) In Isa. 19:7 the river Nile is meant, as rendered in the Revised Version.

Brother - (1.) In the natural and common sense (Matt. 1:2; Luke 3:1, 19).

(2.) A near relation, a cousin (Gen. 13:8; 14:16; Matt. 12:46; John 7:3; Acts 1:14; Gal. 1:19).

(3.) Simply a fellow-countryman (Matt. 5:47; Acts 3:22; Heb. 7:5).

(4.) A disciple or follower (Matt. 25:40; Heb. 2:11, 12).

(5.) One of the same faith (Amos 1:9; Acts 9:30; 11:29; 1 Cor. 5:11); whence the early disciples of our Lord were known to each other as brethren.

(6.) A colleague in office (Ezra 3:2; 1 Cor. 1:1; 2 Cor. 1:1).

(7.) A fellow-man (Gen. 9:5; 19:7; Matt. 5:22, 23, 24; 7:5; Heb. 2:17).

(8.) One beloved or closely united with another in affection (2 Sam. 1:26; Acts 6:3; 1 Thess. 5:1). Brethren of Jesus (Matt. 1:25; 12:46, 50: Mark 3:31, 32; Gal. 1:19; 1 Cor. 9:5, etc.) were probably the younger children of Joseph and Mary. Some have supposed that they may have been the children of Joseph by a former marriage, and others that they were the children of Mary, the Virgin's sister, and wife of Cleophas. The first interpretation, however, is the most natural.

Bruit - a rumour or report (Jer. 10:22, R.V. "rumour;" Nah. 3:19).

Bucket - a vessel to draw water with (Isa. 40:15); used figuratively, probably, of a numerous issue (Num. 24:7).

Buckler - (1.) A portable shield (2 Sam. 22:31; 1 Chr. 5:18).

(2.) A shield surrounding the person; the targe or round form; used once figuratively (Ps. 91:4).

(3.) A large shield protecting the whole body (Ps. 35:2; Ezek. 23:24; 26:8).

(4.) A lance or spear; improperly rendered "buckler" in the Authorized Version (1 Chr. 12:8), but correctly in the Revised Version "spear."

The leather of shields required oiling (2 Sam. 1:21; Isa. 21:5), so as to prevent its being injured by moisture. Copper (= "brass") shields were also in use (1 Sam. 17:6; 1 Kings 14:27). Those spoken of in 1 Kings 10:16, etc.; 14:26, were probably of massive metal.

The shields David had taken from his enemies were suspended in the temple as mementoes (2 Kings 11:10). (See ARMOUR ¯T0000315, SHIELD.)

Building - among the Jews was suited to the climate and conditions of the country. They probably adopted the kind of architecture for their dwellings which they found already existing when they entered Canaan (Deut. 6:10; Num. 13:19). Phoenician artists (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kings 5:6, 18) assisted at the erection of the royal palace and the temple at Jerusalem. Foreigners also assisted at the restoration of the temple after the Exile (Ezra 3:7).

In Gen. 11:3, 9, we have the first recorded instance of the erection of buildings. The cities of the plain of Shinar were founded by the descendants of Shem (10:11, 12, 22).

The Israelites were by occupation shepherds and dwellers in tents (Gen. 47:3); but from the time of their entering Canaan they became dwellers in towns, and in houses built of the native limestone of Palestine. Much building was carried on in Solomon's time. Besides the buildings he completed at Jerusalem, he also built Baalath and Tadmor (1 Kings 9:15, 24). Many of the kings of Israel and Judah were engaged in erecting various buildings.

Herod and his sons and successors restored the temple, and built fortifications and other structures of great magnificence in Jerusalem (Luke 21:5).

The instruments used in building are mentioned as the plumb-line (Amos 7:7), the measuring-reed (Ezek. 40:3), and the saw (1 Kings 7:9).

Believers are "God's building" (1 Cor. 3:9); and heaven is called "a building of God" (2 Cor. 5:1). Christ is the only foundation of his church (1 Cor. 3:10-12), of which he also is the builder (Matt. 16:18).

Bul - rainy, the eighth ecclesiastical month of the year (1 Kings 6:38), and the second month of the civil year; later called Marchesvan (q.v.). (See MONTH.)

Bullock - (1.) The translation of a word which is a generic name for horned cattle (Isa. 65:25). It is also rendered "cow" (Ezek. 4:15), "ox" (Gen. 12:16).

(2.) The translation of a word always meaning an animal of the ox kind, without distinction of age or sex (Hos. 12:11). It is rendered "cow" (Num. 18:17) and "ox" (Lev. 17:3).

(3.) Another word is rendered in the same way (Jer. 31:18). It is also translated "calf" (Lev. 9:3; Micah 6:6). It is the same word used of the "molten calf" (Ex. 32:4, 8) and "the golden calf" (1 Kings 12:28).

(4.) In Judg. 6:25; Isa. 34:7, the Hebrew word is different. It is the customary word for bulls offered in sacrifice. In Hos. 14:2, the Authorized Version has "calves," the Revised Version "bullocks."

Bulrush - (1.) In Isa. 58:5 the rendering of a word which denotes "belonging to a marsh," from the nature of the soil in which it grows (Isa. 18:2). It was sometimes platted into ropes (Job. 41:2; A.V., "hook," R.V., "rope," lit. "cord of rushes").

(2.) In Ex. 2:3, Isa. 18:2 (R.V., "papyrus") this word is the translation of the Hebrew gome, which designates the plant as absorbing moisture. In Isa. 35:7 and Job 8:11 it is rendered "rush." This was the Egyptian papyrus (papyrus Nilotica). It was anciently very abundant in Egypt. The Egyptians made garments and shoes and various utensils of it. It was used for the construction of the ark of Moses (Ex. 2:3, 5). The root portions of the stem were used for food. The inside bark was cut into strips, which were sewed together and dried in the sun, forming the papyrus used for writing. It is no longer found in Egypt, but grows luxuriantly in Palestine, in the marshes of the Huleh, and in the swamps at the north end of the Lake of Gennesaret. (See CANE.)

Bulwarks - mural towers, bastions, were introduced by king Uzziah (2 Chr. 26:15; Zeph. 1:16; Ps. 48:13; Isa. 26:1). There are five Hebrew words so rendered in the Authorized Version, but the same word is also variously rendered.

Bunch - (1.) A bundle of twigs (Ex. 12:22). (2.) Bunch or cake of raisins (2 Sam. 16:1). (3.) The "bunch of a camel" (Isa. 30:6).

Burden - (1.) A load of any kind (Ex. 23:5). (2.) A severe task (Ex. 2:11). (3.) A difficult duty, requiring effort (Ex. 18:22). (4.) A prophecy of a calamitous or disastrous nature (Isa. 13:1; 17:1; Hab. 1:1, etc.).

Burial - The first burial we have an account of is that of Sarah (Gen. 23). The first commercial transaction recorded is that of the purchase of a burial-place, for which Abraham weighed to Ephron "four hundred shekels of silver current money with the merchants." Thus the patriarch became the owner of a part of the land of Canaan, the only part he ever possessed. When he himself died, "his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah," beside Sarah his wife (Gen. 25:9).

Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried under Allon-bachuth, "the oak of weeping" (Gen. 35:8), near to Bethel. Rachel died, and was buried near Ephrath; "and Jacob set a pillar upon her grave" (16-20). Isaac was buried at Hebron, where he had died (27, 29). Jacob, when charging his sons to bury him in the cave of Machpelah, said, "There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried Leah" (49:31). In compliance with the oath which he made him swear unto him (47:29-31), Joseph, assisted by his brethren, buried Jacob in the cave of Machpelah (50:2, 13). At the Exodus, Moses "took the bones of Joseph with him," and they were buried in the "parcel of ground" which Jacob had bought of the sons of Hamor (Josh. 24:32), which became Joseph's inheritance (Gen. 48:22; 1 Chr. 5:1; John 4:5). Two burials are mentioned as having taken place in the wilderness. That of Miriam (Num. 20:1), and that of Moses, "in the land of Moab" (Deut. 34:5, 6, 8). There is no account of the actual burial of Aaron, which probably, however, took place on the summit of Mount Hor (Num. 20:28, 29).

Joshua was buried "in the border of his inheritance in Timnath-serah" (Josh. 24: 30).

In Job we find a reference to burying-places, which were probably the Pyramids (3:14, 15). The Hebrew word for "waste places" here resembles in sound the Egyptian word for "pyramids."

Samuel, like Moses, was honoured with a national burial (1 Sam. 25:1). Joab (1 Kings 2:34) "was buried in his own house in the wilderness."

In connection with the burial of Saul and his three sons we meet for the first time with the practice of burning the dead (1 Sam. 31:11-13). The same practice is again referred to by Amos (6:10).

Absalom was buried "in the wood" where he was slain (2 Sam. 18:17, 18). The raising of the heap of stones over his grave was intended to mark abhorrence of the person buried (comp. Josh. 7:26 and 8:29). There was no fixed royal burying-place for the Hebrew kings. We find several royal burials taking place, however, "in the city of David" (1 Kings 2:10; 11:43; 15:8; 2 Kings 14:19, 20; 15:38; 1 Kings 14:31; 22:50; 2 Chr. 21:19, 20; 2 Chr. 24:25, etc.). Hezekiah was buried in the mount of the sepulchres of the sons of David; "and all Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him honour at his death" (2 Chr. 32:33).

Little is said regarding the burial of the kings of Israel. Some of them were buried in Samaria, the capital of their kingdom (2 Kings 10:35; 13:9; 14:16).

Our Lord was buried in a new tomb, hewn out of the rock, which Joseph of Arimathea had prepared for himself (Matt. 27:57-60; Mark 15:46; John 19:41, 42).

The grave of Lazarus was "a cave, and a stone lay on it" (John 11:38). Graves were frequently either natural caverns or artificial excavations formed in the sides of rocks (Gen. 23:9; Matt. 27:60); and coffins were seldom used, unless when the body was brought from a distance.

Burnt offering - Hebrew olah; i.e., "ascending," the whole being consumed by fire, and regarded as ascending to God while being consumed. Part of every offering was burnt in the sacred fire, but this was wholly burnt, a "whole burnt offering." It was the most frequent form of sacrifice, and apparently the only one mentioned in the book of Genesis. Such were the sacrifices offered by Abel (Gen. 4:3, 4, here called minhah; i.e., "a gift"), Noah (Gen. 8:20), Abraham (Gen. 22:2, 7, 8, 13), and by the Hebrews in Egypt (Ex. 10:25).

The law of Moses afterwards prescribed the occasions and the manner in which burnt sacrifices were to be offered. There were "the continual burnt offering" (Ex. 29:38-42; Lev. 6:9-13), "the burnt offering of every sabbath," which was double the daily one (Num. 28:9, 10), "the burnt offering of every month" (28:11-15), the offerings at the Passover (19-23), at Pentecost (Lev. 23:16), the feast of Trumpets (23:23-25), and on the day of Atonement (Lev. 16).

On other occasions special sacrifices were offered, as at the consecration of Aaron (Ex. 29) and the dedication of the temple (1 Kings 8:5, 62-64).

Free-will burnt offerings were also permitted (Lev. 1:13), and were offered at the accession of Solomon to the throne (1 Chr. 29:21), and at the reformation brought about by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29: 31-35).

These offerings signified the complete dedication of the offerers unto God. This is referred to in Rom. 12:1. (See ALTAR ¯T0000185, SACRIFICE.)

Bush - in which Jehovah appeared to Moses in the wilderness (Ex. 3:2; Acts 7:30). It is difficult to say what particular kind of plant or bush is here meant. Probably it was the mimosa or acacia. The words "in the bush" in Mark 12:26; Luke 20:37, mean "in the passage or paragraph on the bush;" i.e., in Ex. 3.

Butler - properly a servant in charge of the wine (Gen. 40:1-13; 41:9). The Hebrew word, mashkeh, thus translated is rendered also (plural) "cup-bearers" (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4). Nehemiah (1:11) was cup-bearer to king Artaxerxes. It was a position of great responsibility and honour in royal households.

Butter - (Heb. hemah), curdled milk (Gen. 18:8; Judg. 5:25; 2 Sam. 17:29), or butter in the form of the skim of hot milk or cream, called by the Arabs kaimak, a semi-fluid (Job 20:17; 29:6; Deut. 32:14). The words of Prov. 30:33 have been rendered by some "the pressure [not churning] of milk bringeth forth cheese."

Buz - contempt. (1.) The second son of Nahor and Milcah, and brother of Huz (Gen. 22:21). Elihu was one of his descendants (Job 32:2).

(2.) One of the chiefs of the tribe of Gad (1 Chr. 5:14).

(3.) A district in Arabia Petrea (Jer. 25:23).

Buzi - the father of the prophet Ezekiel (1:3).

By - in the expression "by myself" (A.V., 1 Cor. 4:4), means, as rendered in the Revised Version, "against myself."

By and by - immediately (Matt. 13:21; R.V., "straightway;" Luke 21:9).

By-ways - only in Judg. 5:6 and Ps. 125:5; literally "winding or twisted roads." The margin has "crooked ways."

By-word - Hebrew millah (Job 30:9), a word or speech, and hence object of talk; Hebrew mashal (Ps. 44:14), a proverb or parable. When it denotes a sharp word of derision, as in Deut. 28:37, 1 Kings 9:7, 2 Chr. 7:20, the Hebrew sheninah is used. In Jer. 24:9 it is rendered "taunt."

"C"

Cab - hollow (R.V., "kab"), occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25; a dry measure, the sixth part of a seah, and the eighteenth part of an ephah, equal to about two English quarts.

Cabins - only in Jer. 37:16 (R.V., "cells"), arched vaults or recesses off a passage or room; cells for the closer confinement of prisoners.

Cabul - how little! as nothing. (1.) A town on the eastern border of Asher (Josh. 19:27), probably one of the towns given by Solomon to Hiram; the modern Kabul, some 8 miles east of Accho, on the very borders of Galilee.

(2.) A district in the north-west of Galilee, near to Tyre, containing twenty cities given to Hiram by Solomon as a reward for various services rendered to him in building the temple (1 Kings 9:13), and as payment of the six score talents of gold he had borrowed from him. Hiram gave the cities this name because he was not pleased with the gift, the name signifying "good for nothing." Hiram seems afterwards to have restored these cities to Solomon (2 Chr. 8:2).

Caesar - the title assumed by the Roman emperors after Julius Caesar. In the New Testament this title is given to various emperors as sovereigns of Judaea without their accompanying distinctive proper names (John 19:15; Acts 17:7). The Jews paid tribute to Caesar (Matt. 22:17), and all Roman citizens had the right of appeal to him (Acts 25:11). The Caesars referred to in the New Testament are Augustus (Luke 2:1), Tiberius (3:1; 20:22), Claudius (Acts 11:28), and Nero (Acts 25:8; Phil. 4:22).

Caesara Philippi - a city on the northeast of the marshy plain of el-Huleh, 120 miles north of Jerusalem, and 20 miles north of the Sea of Galilee, at the "upper source" of the Jordan, and near the base of Mount Hermon. It is mentioned in Matt. 16:13 and Mark 8:27 as the northern limit of our Lord's public ministry. According to some its original name was Baal-Gad (Josh. 11:17), or Baal-Hermon (Judg. 3:3; 1 Chr. 5:23), when it was a Canaanite sanctuary of Baal. It was afterwards called Panium or Paneas, from a deep cavern full of water near the town. This name was given to the cavern by the Greeks of the Macedonian kingdom of Antioch because of its likeness to the grottos of Greece, which were always associated with the worship of their god Pan. Its modern name is Banias. Here Herod built a temple, which he dedicated to Augustus Caesar. This town was afterwards enlarged and embellished by Herod Philip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, of whose territory it formed a part, and was called by him Caesarea Philippi, partly after his own name, and partly after that of the emperor Tiberius Caesar. It is thus distinguished from the Caesarea of Palestine. (See JORDAN.)

Caesarea - (Palestinae), a city on the shore of the Mediterranean, on the great road from Tyre to Egypt, about 70 miles northwest of Jerusalem, at the northern extremity of the plain of Sharon. It was built by Herod the Great (B.C. 10), who named it after Caesar Augustus, hence called Caesarea Sebaste (Gr. Sebastos = "Augustus"), on the site of an old town called "Strato's Tower." It was the capital of the Roman province of Judaea, the seat of the governors or procurators, and the headquarters of the Roman troops. It was the great Gentile city of Palestine, with a spacious artificial harbour. It was adorned with many buildings of great splendour, after the manner of the Roman cities of the West. Here Cornelius the centurion was converted through the instrumentality of Peter (Acts 10:1, 24), and thus for the first time the door of faith was opened to the Gentiles. Philip the evangelist resided here with his four daughters (21:8). From this place Saul sailed for his native Tarsus when forced to flee from Jerusalem (9:30), and here he landed when returning from his second missionary journey (18:22). He remained as a prisoner here for two years before his voyage to Rome (Acts 24:27; 25:1, 4, 6, 13). Here on a "set day," when games were celebrated in the theatre in honour of the emperor Claudius, Herod Agrippa I. appeared among the people in great pomp, and in the midst of the idolatrous homage paid to him was suddenly smitten by an angel, and carried out a dying man. He was "eaten of worms" (12:19-23), thus perishing by the same loathsome disease as his granfather, Herod the Great. It still retains its ancient name Kaiseriyeh, but is now desolate. "The present inhabitants of the ruins are snakes, scorpions, lizards, wild boars, and jackals." It is described as the most desolate city of all Palestine.

Cage - (Heb. kelub', Jer. 5:27, marg. "coop;" rendered "basket" in Amos 8:1), a basket of wicker-work in which birds were placed after being caught. In Rev. 18:2 it is the rendering of the Greek phulake, properly a prison or place of confinement.

Caiaphas - the Jewish high priest (A.D. 27-36) at the beginning of our Lord's public ministry, in the reign of Tiberius (Luke 3:2), and also at the time of his condemnation and crucifixion (Matt. 26:3,57; John 11:49; 18:13, 14). He held this office during the whole of Pilate's administration. His wife was the daughter of Annas, who had formerly been high priest, and was probably the vicar or deputy (Heb. sagan) of Caiaphas. He was of the sect of the Sadducees (Acts 5:17), and was a member of the council when he gave his opinion that Jesus should be put to death "for the people, and that the whole nation perish not" (John 11:50). In these words he unconsciously uttered a prophecy. "Like Saul, he was a prophet in spite of himself." Caiaphas had no power to inflict the punishment of death, and therefore Jesus was sent to Pilate, the Roman governor, that he might duly pronounce the sentence against him (Matt. 27:2; John 18:28). At a later period his hostility to the gospel is still manifest (Acts 4:6). (See ANNAS.)

Cain - a possession; a spear. (1.) The first-born son of Adam and Eve (Gen. 4). He became a tiller of the ground, as his brother Abel followed the pursuits of pastoral life. He was "a sullen, self-willed, haughty, vindictive man; wanting the religious element in his character, and defiant even in his attitude towards God." It came to pass "in process of time" (marg. "at the end of days"), i.e., probably on the Sabbath, that the two brothers presented their offerings to the Lord. Abel's offering was of the "firstlings of his flock and of the fat," while Cain's was "of the fruit of the ground." Abel's sacrifice was "more excellent" (Heb. 11:4) than Cain's, and was accepted by God. On this account Cain was "very wroth," and cherished feelings of murderous hatred against his brother, and was at length guilty of the desperate outrage of putting him to death (1 John 3:12). For this crime he was expelled from Eden, and henceforth led the life of an exile, bearing upon him some mark which God had set upon him in answer to his own cry for mercy, so that thereby he might be protected from the wrath of his fellow-men; or it may be that God only gave him some sign to assure him that he would not be slain (Gen. 4:15). Doomed to be a wanderer and a fugitive in the earth, he went forth into the "land of Nod", i.e., the land of "exile", which is said to have been in the "east of Eden," and there he built a city, the first we read of, and called it after his son's name, Enoch. His descendants are enumerated to the sixth generation. They gradually degenerated in their moral and spiritual condition till they became wholly corrupt before God. This corruption prevailed, and at length the Deluge was sent by God to prevent the final triumph of evil. (See ABEL.)

(2.) A town of the Kenites, a branch of the Midianites (Josh. 15:57), on the east edge of the mountain above Engedi; probably the "nest in a rock" mentioned by Balaam (Num. 24:21). It is identified with the modern Yekin, 3 miles south-east of Hebron.

Cainan - possession; smith. (1.) The fourth antediluvian patriarch, the eldest son of Enos. He was 70 years old at the birth of his eldest son Mahalaleel, after which he lived 840 years (Gen. 5:9-14), and was 910 years old when he died. He is also called Kenan (1 Chr. 1:2).

(2.) The son of Arphaxad (Luke 3:36). He is nowhere named in the Old Testament. He is usually called the "second Cainan."

Cake - Cakes made of wheat or barley were offered in the temple. They were salted, but unleavened (Ex. 29:2; Lev. 2:4). In idolatrous worship thin cakes or wafers were offered "to the queen of heaven" (Jer. 7:18; 44:19).

Pancakes are described in 2 Sam. 13:8, 9. Cakes mingled with oil and baked in the oven are mentioned in Lev. 2:4, and "wafers unleavened anointed with oil," in Ex. 29:2; Lev. 8:26; 1 Chr. 23:29. "Cracknels," a kind of crisp cakes, were among the things Jeroboam directed his wife to take with her when she went to consult Ahijah the prophet at Shiloh (1 Kings 14:3). Such hard cakes were carried by the Gibeonites when they came to Joshua (9:5, 12). They described their bread as "mouldy;" but the Hebrew word nikuddim, here used, ought rather to be rendered "hard as biscuit." It is rendered "cracknels" in 1 Kings 14:3. The ordinary bread, when kept for a few days, became dry and excessively hard. The Gibeonites pointed to this hardness of their bread as an evidence that they had come a long journey.

We read also of honey-cakes (Ex. 16:31), "cakes of figs" (1 Sam. 25:18), "cake" as denoting a whole piece of bread (1 Kings 17:12), and "a [round] cake of barley bread" (Judg. 7:13). In Lev. 2 is a list of the different kinds of bread and cakes which were fit for offerings.

Calah - one of the most ancient cities of Assyria. "Out of that land he [i.e., Nimrod] went forth into Assyria, and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir, and Calah, and Resen" (Gen. 10:11, R.V.). Its site is now marked probably by the Nimrud ruins on the left bank of the Tigris. These cover an area of about 1,000 acres, and are second only in size and importance to the mass of ruins opposite Mosul. This city was at one time the capital of the empire, and was the residence of Sardanapalus and his successors down to the time of Sargon, who built a new capital, the modern Khorsabad. It has been conjectured that these four cities mentioned in Gen. 10:11 were afterwards all united into one and called Nineveh (q.v.).

Calamus - the Latin for cane, Hebrew Kaneh, mentioned (Ex. 30:23) as one of the ingredients in the holy anointing oil, one of the sweet scents (Cant. 4:14), and among the articles sold in the markets of Tyre (Ezek. 27:19). The word designates an Oriental plant called the "sweet flag," the Acorus calamus of Linnaeus. It is elsewhere called "sweet cane" (Isa. 43:24; Jer. 6:20). It has an aromatic smell, and when its knotted stalk is cut and dried and reduced to powder, it forms an ingredient in the most precious perfumes. It was not a native of Palestine, but was imported from Arabia Felix or from India. It was probably that which is now known in India by the name of "lemon grass" or "ginger grass," the Andropogon schoenanthus. (See CANE.)

Calcol - (1 Chr. 2:6), sustenance, the same probably as Chalcol (1 Kings 4:31), one of the four sages whom Solomon excelled in wisdom; for "he was wiser than all men."

Caleb - a dog. (1.) One of the three sons of Hezron of the tribe of Judah. He is also called Chelubai (1 Chr. 2:9). His descendants are enumerated (18-20, 42-49).

(2.) A "son of Hur, the firstborn of Ephratah" (1 Chr. 2:50). Some would read the whole passage thus: "These [i.e., the list in ver. 42-49] were the sons of Caleb. The sons of Hur, the firstborn of Ephratah, were Shobal, etc." Thus Hur would be the name of the son and not the father of Caleb (ver. 19).

(3.) The son of Jephunneh (Num. 13:6; 32:12; Josh. 14:6, 14). He was one of those whom Moses sent to search the land in the second year after the Exodus. He was one of the family chiefs of the tribe of Judah. He and Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to go up and possess the land, and they alone were spared when a plague broke out in which the other ten spies perished (Num. 13; 14). All the people that had been numbered, from twenty years old and upward, perished in the wilderness except these two. The last notice we have of Caleb is when (being then eighty-five years of age) he came to Joshua at the camp at Gilgal, after the people had gained possession of the land, and reminded him of the promise Moses had made to him, by virtue of which he claimed a certain portion of the land of Kirjath-arba as his inheritance (Josh. 14:6-15; 15:13-15; 21:10-12; 1 Sam. 25:2,3; 30:14). He is called a "Kenezite" in Josh. 14:6,14. This may simply mean "son of Kenez" (Num. 32:12). Some, however, read "Jephunneh, the son of Kenez," who was a descendant of Hezron, the son of Pharez, a grandson of Judah (1 Chr. 2:5). This Caleb may possibly be identical with (2).

(4.) Caleb gave his name apparently to a part of the south country (1 Sam. 30:14) of Judah, the district between Hebron and Carmel, which had been assigned to him. When he gave up the city of Hebron to the priests as a city of refuge, he retained possession of the surrounding country (Josh. 21:11,12; comp. 1 Sam. 25:3).

Calf - Calves were commonly made use of in sacrifices, and are therefore frequently mentioned in Scripture. The "fatted calf" was regarded as the choicest of animal food; it was frequently also offered as a special sacrifice (1 Sam. 28:24; Amos 6:4; Luke 15:23). The words used in Jer. 34:18, 19, "cut the calf in twain," allude to the custom of dividing a sacrifice into two parts, between which the parties ratifying a covenant passed (Gen. 15:9, 10, 17, 18). The sacrifice of the lips, i.e., priase, is called "the calves of our lips" (Hos. 14:2, R.V., "as bullocks the offering of our lips." Comp. Heb. 13:15; Ps. 116:7; Jer. 33:11).

The golden calf which Aaron made (Ex. 32:4) was probably a copy of the god Moloch rather than of the god Apis, the sacred ox or calf of Egypt. The Jews showed all through their history a tendency toward the Babylonian and Canaanitish idolatry rather than toward that of Egypt.

Ages after this, Jeroboam, king of Israel, set up two idol calves, one at Dan, and the other at Bethel, that he might thus prevent the ten tribes from resorting to Jerusalem for worship (1 Kings 12:28). These calves continued to be a snare to the people till the time of their captivity. The calf at Dan was carried away in the reign of Pekah by Tiglath-pileser, and that at Bethel ten years later, in the reign of Hoshea, by Shalmaneser (2 Kings 15:29; 17:33). This sin of Jeroboam is almost always mentioned along with his name (2 Kings 15:28 etc.).

Calkers - workmen skilled in stopping the seams of the deck or sides of vessels. The inhabitants of Gebel were employed in such work on Tyrian vessels (Ezek. 27:9, 27; marg., "strengtheners" or "stoppers of chinks").

Call - (1.) To cry for help, hence to pray (Gen. 4:26). Thus men are said to "call upon the name of the Lord" (Acts 2:21; 7:59; 9:14; Rom. 10:12; 1 Cor. 1:2).

(2.) God calls with respect to men when he designates them to some special office (Ex. 31:2; Isa. 22:20; Acts 13:2), and when he invites them to accept his offered grace (Matt. 9:13; 11:28; 22:4).

In the message of the gospel his call is addressed to all men, to Jews and Gentiles alike (Matt. 28:19; Mark 16:15; Rom. 9:24, 25). But this universal call is not inseparably connected with salvation, although it leaves all to whom it comes inexcusable if they reject it (John 3:14-19; Matt. 22:14).

An effectual call is something more than the outward message of the Word of God to men. It is internal, and is the result of the enlightening and sanctifying influence of the Holy Spirit (John 16:14; Acts 26: 18; John 6:44), effectually drawing men to Christ, and disposing and enabling them to receive the truth (John 6:45; Acts 16:14; Eph. 1:17).

Calling - a profession, or as we usually say, a vocation (1 Cor. 7:20). The "hope of your calling" in Eph. 4:4 is the hope resulting from your being called into the kingdom of God.

Calneh - fort, one of the four cities founded by Nimrod (Gen. 10:10). It is the modern Niffer, a lofty mound of earth and rubbish situated in the marshes on the left, i.e., the east, bank of the Euphrates, but 30 miles distant from its present course, and about 60 miles south-south-east from Babylon. It is mentioned as one of the towns with which Tyre carried on trade. It was finally taken and probably destroyed by one of the Assyrian kings (Amos 6:2). It is called Calno (Isa. 10:9) and Canneh (Ezek. 27:23).

Calvary - only in Luke 23:33, the Latin name Calvaria, which was used as a translation of the Greek word Kranion, by which the Hebrew word Gulgoleth was interpreted, "the place of a skull." It probably took this name from its shape, being a hillock or low, rounded, bare elevation somewhat in the form of a human skull. It is nowhere in Scripture called a "hill." The crucifixion of our Lord took place outside the city walls (Heb. 13:11-13) and near the public thoroughfare. "This thing was not done in a corner." (See GOLGOTHA.)

Camel - from the Hebrew gamal, "to repay" or "requite," as the camel does the care of its master. There are two distinct species of camels, having, however, the common characteristics of being "ruminants without horns, without muzzle, with nostrils forming oblique slits, the upper lip divided and separately movable and extensile, the soles of the feet horny, with two toes covered by claws, the limbs long, the abdomen drawn up, while the neck, long and slender, is bent up and down, the reverse of that of a horse, which is arched."

(1.) The Bactrian camel is distinguished by two humps. It is a native of the high table-lands of Central Asia.

(2.) The Arabian camel or dromedary, from the Greek dromos, "a runner" (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 2:23), has but one hump, and is a native of Western Asia or Africa.

The camel was early used both for riding and as a beast of burden (Gen. 24:64; 37:25), and in war (1 Sam. 30:17; Isa. 21:7). Mention is made of the camel among the cattle given by Pharaoh to Abraham (Gen. 12:16). Its flesh was not to be eaten, as it was ranked among unclean animals (Lev. 11:4; Deut. 14:7). Abraham's servant rode on a camel when he went to fetch a wife for Isaac (Gen. 24:10, 11). Jacob had camels as a portion of his wealth (30:43), as Abraham also had (24:35). He sent a present of thirty milch camels to his brother Esau (32:15). It appears to have been little in use among the Jews after the conquest. It is, however, mentioned in the history of David (1 Chr. 27:30), and after the Exile (Ezra 2:67; Neh. 7:69). Camels were much in use among other nations in the East. The queen of Sheba came with a caravan of camels when she came to see the wisdom of Solomon (1 Kings 10:2; 2 Chr. 9:1). Benhadad of Damascus also sent a present to Elisha, "forty camels' burden" (2 Kings 8:9).

To show the difficulty in the way of a rich man's entering into the kingdom, our Lord uses the proverbial expression that it was easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle (Matt. 19:24).

To strain at (rather, out) a gnat and swallow a camel was also a proverbial expression (Matt. 23:24), used with reference to those who were careful to avoid small faults, and yet did not hesitate to commit the greatest sins. The Jews carefully filtered their wine before drinking it, for fear of swallowing along with it some insect forbidden in the law as unclean, and yet they omitted openly the "weightier matters" of the law.

The raiment worn by John the Baptist was made of camel's hair (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6), by which he was distinguished from those who resided in royal palaces and wore soft raiment. This was also the case with Elijah (2 Kings 1:8), who is called "a hairy man," from his wearing such raiment. "This is one of the most admirable materials for clothing; it keeps out the heat, cold, and rain." The "sackcloth" so often alluded to (2 Kings 1:8; Isa. 15:3; Zech. 13:4, etc.) was probably made of camel's hair.

Camon - full of stalks, a place (Judg. 10:5) where Jair was buried. It has usually been supposed to have been a city of Gilead, on the east of Jordan. It is probably, however, the modern Tell-el-Kaimun, on the southern slopes of Carmel, the Jokneam of Carmel (Josh. 12:22; 1 Kings 4:12), since it is not at all unlikely that after he became judge, Jair might find it more convenient to live on the west side of Jordan; and that he was buried where he had lived.

Camp - During their journeys across the wilderness, the twelve tribes formed encampments at the different places where they halted (Ex. 16:13; Num. 2:3). The diagram here given shows the position of the different tribes and the form of the encampment during the wanderings, according to Num. 1:53; 2:2-31; 3:29, 35, 38; 10:13-28.

The area of the camp would be in all about 3 square miles. After the Hebrews entered Palestine, the camps then spoken of were exclusively warlike (Josh. 11:5, 7; Judg. 5:19, 21; 7:1; 1 Sam. 29:1; 30:9, etc.).

Camphire - (Heb. copher), mentioned in Cant. 1:14 (R.V., "henna-flowers"); 4:13 (R.V., "henna"), is the al-henna of the Arabs, a native of Egypt, producing clusters of small white and yellow odoriferous flowers, whence is made the Oleum Cyprineum. From its leaves is made the peculiar auburn dye with which Eastern women stain their nails and the palms of their hands. It is found only at Engedi, on the shore of the Dead Sea. It is known to botanists by the name Lawsonia alba or inermis, a kind of privet, which grows 6 or 8 feet high. The margin of the Authorized Version of the passages above referred to has "or cypress," not with reference to the conifer so called, but to the circumstance that one of the most highly appreciated species of this plant grew in the island of Cyprus.

Cana - reedy, a town of Galilee, near Capernaum. Here our Lord wrought his first miracle, the turning of water into wine (John 2:1-11; 4:46). It is also mentioned as the birth-place of Nathanael (21:2). It is not mentioned in the Old Testament. It has been identified with the modern Kana el-Jelil, also called Khurbet Kana, a place 8 or 9 miles north of Nazareth. Others have identified it with Kefr Kenna, which lies on the direct road to the Sea of Galilee, about 5 miles north-east of Nazareth, and 12 in a direct course from Tiberias. It is called "Cana of Galilee," to distinguish it from Cana of Asher (Josh. 19:28).

Canaan - (1.) The fourth son of Ham (Gen. 10:6). His descendants were under a curse in consequence of the transgression of his father (9:22-27). His eldest son, Zidon, was the father of the Sidonians and Phoenicians. He had eleven sons, who were the founders of as many tribes (10:15-18).

(2.) The country which derived its name from the preceding. The name as first used by the Phoenicians denoted only the maritime plain on which Sidon was built. But in the time of Moses and Joshua it denoted the whole country to the west of the Jordan and the Dead Sea (Deut. 11:30). In Josh. 5:12 the LXX. read, "land of the Phoenicians," instead of "land of Canaan."

The name signifies "the lowlands," as distinguished from the land of Gilead on the east of Jordan, which was a mountainous district. The extent and boundaries of Canaan are fully set forth in different parts of Scripture (Gen. 10:19; 17:8; Num. 13:29; 34:8). (See CANAANITES ¯T0000705, PALESTINE.)

Canaanite - a name given to the apostle Simon (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18). The word here does not, however, mean a descendant of Canaan, but is a translation, or rather almost a transliteration, of the Syriac word Kanenyeh (R.V. rendered "Cananaen"), which designates the Jewish sect of the Zealots. Hence he is called elsewhere (Luke 6:15) "Simon Zelotes;" i.e., Simon of the sect of the Zealots. (See SIMON.)

Canaanites - the descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham. Migrating from their original home, they seem to have reached the Persian Gulf, and to have there sojourned for some time. They thence "spread to the west, across the mountain chain of Lebanon to the very edge of the Mediterranean Sea, occupying all the land which later became Palestine, also to the north-west as far as the mountain chain of Taurus. This group was very numerous, and broken up into a great many peoples, as we can judge from the list of nations (Gen. 10), the 'sons of Canaan.'" Six different tribes are mentioned in Ex. 3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2; 34:11. In Ex. 13:5 the "Perizzites" are omitted. The "Girgashites" are mentioned in addition to the foregoing in Deut. 7:1; Josh. 3:10.

The "Canaanites," as distinguished from the Amalekites, the Anakim, and the Rephaim, were "dwellers in the lowlands" (Num. 13:29), the great plains and valleys, the richest and most important parts of Palestine. Tyre and Sidon, their famous cities, were the centres of great commercial activity; and hence the name "Canaanite" came to signify a "trader" or "merchant" (Job 41:6; Prov. 31:24, lit. "Canaanites;" comp. Zeph. 1:11; Ezek. 17:4). The name "Canaanite" is also sometimes used to designate the non-Israelite inhabitants of the land in general (Gen. 12:6; Num. 21:3; Judg. 1:10).

The Israelites, when they were led to the Promised Land, were commanded utterly to destroy the descendants of Canaan then possessing it (Ex. 23:23; Num. 33:52, 53; Deut. 20:16, 17). This was to be done "by little and little," lest the beasts of the field should increase (Ex. 23:29; Deut. 7:22, 23). The history of these wars of conquest is given in the Book of Joshua. The extermination of these tribes, however, was never fully carried out. Jerusalem was not taken till the time of David (2 Sam. 5:6, 7). In the days of Solomon bond-service was exacted from the fragments of the tribes still remaining in the land (1 Kings 9:20, 21). Even after the return from captivity survivors of five of the Canaanitish tribes were still found in the land.

In the Tell-el-Amarna tablets Canaan is found under the forms of Kinakhna and Kinakhkhi. Under the name of Kanana the Canaanites appear on Egyptian monuments, wearing a coat of mail and helmet, and distinguished by the use of spear and javelin and the battle-axe. They were called Phoenicians by the Greeks and Poeni by the Romans. By race the Canaanites were Semitic. They were famous as merchants and seamen, as well as for their artistic skill. The chief object of their worship was the sun-god, who was addressed by the general name of Baal, "lord." Each locality had its special Baal, and the various local Baals were summed up under the name of Baalim, "lords."

Canaan, the language of - mentioned in Isa. 19:18, denotes the language spoken by the Jews resident in Palestine. The language of the Canaanites and of the Hebrews was substantially the same. This is seen from the fragments of the Phoenician language which still survive, which show the closest analogy to the Hebrew. Yet the subject of the language of the "Canaanites" is very obscure. The cuneiform writing of Babylon, as well as the Babylonian language, was taught in the Canaanitish schools, and the clay tablets of Babylonian literature were stored in the Canaanitish libraries. Even the Babylonian divinities were borrowed by the Canaanites.

Candace - the queen of the Ethiopians whose "eunuch" or chamberlain was converted to Christianity by the instrumentality of Philip the evangelist (Acts 8:27). The country which she ruled was called by the Greeks Meroe, in Upper Nubia. It was long the centre of commercial intercourse between Africa and the south of Asia, and hence became famous for its wealth (Isa. 45:14).

It is somewhat singular that female sovereignty seems to have prevailed in Ethiopia, the name Candace (compare "Pharaoh," "Ptolemy," "Caesar") being a title common to several successive queens. It is probable that Judaism had taken root in Ethiopia at this time, and hence the visit of the queen's treasurer to Jerusalem to keep the feast. There is a tradition that Candace was herself converted to Christianity by her treasurer on his return, and that he became the apostle of Christianity in that whole region, carrying it also into Abyssinia. It is said that he also preached the gospel in Arabia Felix and in Ceylon, where he suffered martyrdom. (See PHILIP.)

Candle - Heb. ner, Job 18:6; 29:3; Ps. 18:28; Prov. 24:20, in all which places the Revised Version and margin of Authorized Version have "lamp," by which the word is elsewhere frequently rendered. The Hebrew word denotes properly any kind of candle or lamp or torch. It is used as a figure of conscience (Prov. 20:27), of a Christian example (Matt. 5:14, 15), and of prosperity (Job 21:17; Prov. 13:9).

Candlestick - the lamp-stand, "candelabrum," which Moses was commanded to make for the tabernacle, according to the pattern shown him. Its form is described in Ex. 25:31-40; 37:17-24, and may be seen represented on the Arch of Titus at Rome. It was among the spoils taken by the Romans from the temple of Jerusalem (A.D. 70). It was made of fine gold, and with the utensils belonging to it was a talent in weight.

The tabernacle was a tent without windows, and thus artificial light was needed. This was supplied by the candlestick, which, however, served also as a symbol of the church or people of God, who are "the light of the world." The light which "symbolizes the knowledge of God is not the sun or any natural light, but an artificial light supplied with a specially prepared oil; for the knowledge of God is in truth not natural nor common to all men, but furnished over and above nature."

This candlestick was placed on the south side of the Holy Place, opposite the table of shewbread (Ex. 27:21; 30:7, 8; Lev. 24:3; 1 Sam. 3:3). It was lighted every evening, and was extinguished in the morning. In the morning the priests trimmed the seven lamps, borne by the seven branches, with golden snuffers, carrying away the ashes in golden dishes (Ex. 25:38), and supplying the lamps at the same time with fresh oil. What ultimately became of the candlestick is unknown.

In Solomon's temple there were ten separate candlesticks of pure gold, five on the right and five on the left of the Holy Place (1 Kings 7:49; 2 Chr. 4:7). Their structure is not mentioned. They were carried away to Babylon (Jer. 52:19).

In the temple erected after the Exile there was again but one candlestick, and like the first, with seven branches. It was this which was afterwards carried away by Titus to Rome, where it was deposited in the Temple of Peace. When Genseric plundered Rome, he is said to have carried it to Carthage (A.D. 455). It was recaptured by Belisarius (A.D. 533), and carried to Constantinople and thence to Jerusalem, where it finally disappeared.

Cane - a tall sedgy plant with a hollow stem, growing in moist places. In Isa. 43:24; Jer. 6:20, the Hebrew word kaneh is thus rendered, giving its name to the plant. It is rendered "reed" in 1 Kings 14:15; Job 40:21; Isa. 19:6; 35:7. In Ps. 68:30 the expression "company of spearmen" is in the margin and the Revised Version "beasts of the reeds," referring probably to the crocodile or the hippopotamus as a symbol of Egypt. In 2 Kings 18:21; Isa. 36:6; Ezek. 29:6, 7, the reference is to the weak, fragile nature of the reed. (See CALAMUS.)

Canker - a gangrene or mortification which gradually spreads over the whole body (2 Tim. 2:17). In James 5:3 "cankered" means "rusted" (R.V.) or tarnished.

Cankerworm - (Heb. yelek), "the licking locust," which licks up the grass of the field; probably the locust at a certain stage of its growth, just as it emerges from the caterpillar state (Joel 1:4; 2:25). The word is rendered "caterpillar" in Ps. 105:34; Jer. 51:14, 17 (but R.V. "canker-worm"). "It spoileth and fleeth away" (Nah. 3:16), or as some read the passage, "The cankerworm putteth off [i.e., the envelope of its wings], and fleeth away."

Canneh - Mentioned only in Ezek. 27:23. (See CALNEH.)

Canon - This word is derived from a Hebrew and Greek word denoting a reed or cane. Hence it means something straight, or something to keep straight; and hence also a rule, or something ruled or measured. It came to be applied to the Scriptures, to denote that they contained the authoritative rule of faith and practice, the standard of doctrine and duty. A book is said to be of canonical authority when it has a right to take a place with the other books which contain a revelation of the Divine will. Such a right does not arise from any ecclesiastical authority, but from the evidence of the inspired authorship of the book. The canonical (i.e., the inspired) books of the Old and New Testaments, are a complete rule, and the only rule, of faith and practice. They contain the whole supernatural revelation of God to men. The New Testament Canon was formed gradually under divine guidance. The different books as they were written came into the possession of the Christian associations which began to be formed soon after the day of Pentecost; and thus slowly the canon increased till all the books were gathered together into one collection containing the whole of the twenty-seven New Testament inspired books. Historical evidence shows that from about the middle of the second century this New Testament collection was substantially such as we now possess. Each book contained in it is proved to have, on its own ground, a right to its place; and thus the whole is of divine authority.

The Old Testament Canon is witnessed to by the New Testament writers. Their evidence is conclusive. The quotations in the New from the Old are very numerous, and the references are much more numerous. These quotations and references by our Lord and the apostles most clearly imply the existence at that time of a well-known and publicly acknowledged collection of Hebrew writings under the designation of "The Scriptures;" "The Law and the Prophets and the Psalms;" "Moses and the Prophets," etc. The appeals to these books, moreover, show that they were regarded as of divine authority, finally deciding all questions of which they treat; and that the whole collection so recognized consisted only of the thirty-nine books which we now posses. Thus they endorse as genuine and authentic the canon of the Jewish Scriptures. The Septuagint Version (q.v.) also contained every book we now have in the Old Testament Scriptures. As to the time at which the Old Testament canon was closed, there are many considerations which point to that of Ezra and Nehemiah, immediately after the return from Babylonian exile. (See BIBLE ¯T0000580, EZRA ¯T0001294, QUOTATIONS.)

Capernaum - Nahum's town, a Galilean city frequently mentioned in the history of our Lord. It is not mentioned in the Old Testament. After our Lord's expulsion from Nazareth (Matt. 4:13-16; Luke 4:16-31), Capernaum became his "own city." It was the scene of many acts and incidents of his life (Matt. 8:5, 14, 15; 9:2-6, 10-17; 15:1-20; Mark 1:32-34, etc.). The impenitence and unbelief of its inhabitants after the many evidences our Lord gave among them of the truth of his mission, brought down upon them a heavy denunciation of judgement (Matt. 11:23).

It stood on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The "land of Gennesaret," near, if not in, which it was situated, was one of the most prosperous and crowded districts of Palestine. This city lay on the great highway from Damascus to Acco and Tyre. It has been identified with Tell Hum, about two miles south-west of where the Jordan flows into the lake. Here are extensive ruins of walls and foundations, and also the remains of what must have been a beautiful synagogue, which it is conjectured may have been the one built by the centurion (Luke 7:5), in which our Lord frequently taught (John 6:59; Mark 1:21; Luke 4:33). Others have conjectured that the ruins of the city are to be found at Khan Minyeh, some three miles further to the south on the shore of the lake. "If Tell Hum be Capernaum, the remains spoken of are without doubt the ruins of the synagogue built by the Roman centurion, and one of the most sacred places on earth. It was in this building that our Lord gave the well-known discourse in John 6; and it was not without a certain strange feeling that on turning over a large block we found the pot of manna engraved on its face, and remembered the words, 'I am that bread of life: your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness, and are dead.'", (The Recovery of Jerusalem.)

Caphtor - a chaplet, the original seat of the Philistines (Deut. 2:23; Jer. 47:4; Amos 9:7). The name is found written in hieroglyphics in the temple of Kom Ombos in Upper Egypt. But the exact situation of Caphtor is unknown, though it is supposed to be Crete, since the Philistines seem to be meant by the "Cherethites" in 1 Sam. 30:14 (see also 2 Sam. 8:18). It may, however, have been a part of Egypt, the Caphtur in the north Delta, since the Caphtorim were of the same race as the Mizraite people (Gen. 10:14; 1 Chr. 1:12).

Cappadocia - the easternmost and the largest province of Asia Minor. Christianity very early penetrated into this country (1 Pet. 1:1). On the day of Pentecost there were Cappadocians at Jerusalem (Acts 2:9).

Captain - (1.) Heb. sar (1 Sam. 22:2; 2 Sam. 23:19). Rendered "chief," Gen. 40:2; 41:9; rendered also "prince," Dan. 1:7; "ruler," Judg. 9:30; "governor,' 1 Kings 22:26. This same Hebrew word denotes a military captain (Ex. 18:21; 2 Kings 1:9; Deut. 1:15; 1 Sam. 18:13, etc.), the "captain of the body-guard" (Gen. 37:36; 39:1; 41:10; Jer. 40:1), or, as the word may be rendered, "chief of the executioners" (marg.). The officers of the king's body-guard frequently acted as executioners. Nebuzar-adan (Jer. 39:13) and Arioch (Dan. 2:14) held this office in Babylon.

The "captain of the guard" mentioned in Acts 28:16 was the Praetorian prefect, the commander of the Praetorian troops.

(2.) Another word (Heb. katsin) so translated denotes sometimes a military (Josh. 10:24; Judg. 11:6, 11; Isa. 22:3 "rulers;" Dan. 11:18) and sometimes a civil command, a judge, magistrate, Arab. kady, (Isa. 1:10; 3:6; Micah 3:1, 9).

(3.) It is also the rendering of a Hebrew word (shalish) meaning "a third man," or "one of three." The LXX. render in plural by tristatai; i.e., "soldiers fighting from chariots," so called because each war-chariot contained three men, one of whom acted as charioteer while the other two fought (Ex. 14:7; 15:4; 1 Kings 9:22; comp. 2 Kings 9:25). This word is used also to denote the king's body-guard (2 Kings 10:25; 1 Chr. 12:18; 2 Chr. 11:11) or aides-de-camp.

(4.) The "captain of the temple" mentioned in Acts 4:1 and 5:24 was not a military officer, but superintendent of the guard of priests and Levites who kept watch in the temple by night. (Comp. "the ruler of the house of God," 1 Chr. 9:11; 2 Chr. 31:13; Neh. 11:11.)

(5.) The Captain of our salvation is a name given to our Lord (Heb. 2:10), because he is the author and source of our salvation, the head of his people, whom he is conducting to glory. The "captain of the Lord's host" (Josh. 5:14, 15) is the name given to that mysterious person who manifested himself to Abraham (Gen. 12:7), and to Moses in the bush (Ex. 3:2, 6, etc.) the Angel of the covenant. (See ANGEL.)

Captive - one taken in war. Captives were often treated with great cruelty and indignity (1 Kings 20:32; Josh. 10:24; Judg. 1:7; 2 Sam. 4:12; Judg. 8:7; 2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 20:3). When a city was taken by assault, all the men were slain, and the women and children carried away captive and sold as slaves (Isa. 20; 47:3; 2 Chr. 28:9-15; Ps. 44:12; Joel 3:3), and exposed to the most cruel treatment (Nah. 3:10; Zech. 14:2; Esther 3:13; 2 Kings 8:12; Isa. 13:16, 18). Captives were sometimes carried away into foreign countries, as was the case with the Jews (Jer. 20:5; 39:9, 10; 40:7).

Captivity - (1.) Of Israel. The kingdom of the ten tribes was successively invaded by several Assyrian kings. Pul (q.v.) imposed a tribute on Menahem of a thousand talents of silver (2 Kings 15:19, 20; 1 Chr. 5:26) (B.C. 762), and Tiglath-pileser, in the days of Pekah (B.C. 738), carried away the trans-Jordanic tribes and the inhabitants of Galilee into Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; Isa. 9:1). Subsequently Shalmaneser invaded Israel and laid siege to Samaria, the capital of the kingdom. During the siege he died, and was succeeded by Sargon, who took the city, and transported the great mass of the people into Assyria (B.C. 721), placing them in Halah and in Habor, and in the cities of the Medes (2 Kings 17:3, 5). Samaria was never again inhabited by the Israelites. The families thus removed were carried to distant cities, many of them not far from the Caspian Sea, and their place was supplied by colonists from Babylon and Cuthah, etc. (2 Kings 17:24). Thus terminated the kingdom of the ten tribes, after a separate duration of two hundred and fifty-five years (B.C. 975-721).

Many speculations have been indulged in with reference to these ten tribes. But we believe that all, except the number that probably allied themselves with Judah and shared in their restoration under Cyrus, are finally lost.

"Like the dew on the mountain, Like the foam on the river, Like the bubble on the fountain, They are gone, and for ever."

(2.) Of Judah. In the third year of Jehoiachim, the eighteenth king of Judah (B.C. 605), Nebuchadnezzar having overcome the Egyptians at Carchemish, advanced to Jerusalem with a great army. After a brief siege he took that city, and carried away the vessels of the sanctuary to Babylon, and dedicated them in the Temple of Belus (2 Kings 24:1; 2 Chr. 36:6, 7; Dan. 1:1, 2). He also carried away the treasures of the king, whom he made his vassal. At this time, from which is dated the "seventy years" of captivity (Jer. 25; Dan. 9:1, 2), Daniel and his companions were carried to Babylon, there to be brought up at the court and trained in all the learning of the Chaldeans. After this, in the fifth year of Jehoiakim, a great national fast was appointed (Jer. 36:9), during which the king, to show his defiance, cut up the leaves of the book of Jeremiah's prophecies as they were read to him in his winter palace, and threw them into the fire. In the same spirit he rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24:1), who again a second time (B.C. 598) marched against Jerusalem, and put Jehoiachim to death, placing his son Jehoiachin on the throne in his stead. But Jehoiachin's counsellors displeasing Nebuchadnezzar, he again a third time turned his army against Jerusalem, and carried away to Babylon a second detachment of Jews as captives, to the number of 10,000 (2 Kings 24:13; Jer. 24:1; 2 Chr. 36:10), among whom were the king, with his mother and all his princes and officers, also Ezekiel, who with many of his companions were settled on the banks of the river Chebar (q.v.). He also carried away all the remaining treasures of the temple and the palace, and the golden vessels of the sanctuary.

Mattaniah, the uncle of Jehoiachin, was now made king over what remained of the kingdom of Judah, under the name of Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:17; 2 Chr. 36:10). After a troubled reign of eleven years his kingdom came to an end (2 Chr. 36:11). Nebuchadnezzar, with a powerful army, besieged Jerusalem, and Zedekiah became a prisoner in Babylon. His eyes were put out, and he was kept in close confinement till his death (2 Kings 25:7). The city was spoiled of all that was of value, and then given up to the flames. The temple and palaces were consumed, and the walls of the city were levelled with the ground (B.C. 586), and all that remained of the people, except a number of the poorest class who were left to till the ground and dress the vineyards, were carried away captives to Babylon. This was the third and last deportation of Jewish captives. The land was now utterly desolate, and was abondoned to anarchy.

In the first year of his reign as king of Babylon (B.C. 536), Cyrus issued a decree liberating the Jewish captives, and permitting them to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the city and the temple (2 Chr. 36:22, 23; Ezra 1; 2). The number of the people forming the first caravan, under Zerubbabel, amounted in all to 42,360 (Ezra 2:64, 65), besides 7,337 men-servants and maid-servants. A considerable number, 12,000 probably, from the ten tribes who had been carried away into Assyria no doubt combined with this band of liberated captives.

At a later period other bands of the Jews returned (1) under Ezra (7:7) (B.C. 458), and (2) Nehemiah (7:66) (B.C. 445). But the great mass of the people remained still in the land to which they had been carried, and became a portion of the Jews of the "dispersion" (John 7:35; 1 Pet. 1:1). The whole number of the exiles that chose to remain was probably about six times the number of those who returned.

Carbuncle - (Ex. 28:17; 39:10; Ezek. 28:13). Heb. barkath; LXX. smaragdos; Vulgate, smaragdus; Revised Version, marg., "emerald." The Hebrew word is from a root meaning "to glitter," "lighten," "flash." When held up to the sun, this gem shines like a burning coal, a dark-red glowing coal, and hence is called "carbunculus", i.e., a little coal. It was one of the jewels in the first row of the high priest's breastplate. It has been conjectured by some that the garnet is meant. In Isa. 54:12 the Hebrew word is 'ekdah, used in the prophetic description of the glory and beauty of the mansions above. Next to the diamond it is the hardest and most costly of all precious stones.

Carcase - contact with a, made an Israelite ceremonially unclean, and made whatever he touched also unclean, according to the Mosaic law (Hag. 2:13; comp. Num. 19:16, 22; Lev. 11:39).

Carchemish - fortress of Chemosh, a city on the west bank of the Euphrates (Jer. 46:2; 2 Chr. 35:20), not, as was once supposed, the Circesium at the confluence of the Chebar and the Euphrates, but a city considerably higher up the river, and commanding the ordinary passage of the Euphrates; probably identical with Hierapolis. It was the capital of the kingdom of the northern Hittites. The Babylonian army, under Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, here met and conquered the army of Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt (B.C. 607). It is mentioned in monuments in B.C. 1600 and down to B.C. 717.

Carmel - a park; generally with the article, "the park." (1.) A prominent headland of Central Palestine, consisting of several connected hills extending from the plain of Esdraelon to the sea, a distance of some 12 miles or more. At the east end, in its highest part, it is 1,728 feet high, and at the west end it forms a promontory to the bay of Acre about 600 feet above the sea. It lay within the tribe of Asher. It was here, at the east end of the ridge, at a place called el-Mukhrakah (i.e., the place of burning), that Elijah brought back the people to their allegiance to God, and slew the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18). Here were consumed the "fifties" of the royal guard; and here also Elisha received the visit of the bereaved mother whose son was restored by him to life (2 Kings 4:25-37). "No mountain in or around Palestine retains its ancient beauty so much as Carmel. Two or three villages and some scattered cottages are found on it; its groves are few but luxuriant; it is no place for crags and precipices or rocks of wild goats; but its surface is covered with a rich and constant verdure." "The whole mountain-side is dressed with blossom, and flowering shrubs, and fragrant herbs." The western extremity of the ridge is, however, more rocky and bleak than the eastern. The head of the bride in Cant. 7:5 is compared to Carmel. It is ranked with Bashan on account of its rich pastures (Isa. 33:9; Jer. 50:19; Amos 1:2). The whole ridge is deeply furrowed with rocky ravines filled with dense jungle. There are many caves in its sides, which at one time were inhabited by swarms of monks. These caves are referred to in Amos 9:3. To them Elijah and Elisha often resorted (1 Kings 18:19, 42; 2 Kings 2:25). On its north-west summit there is an ancient establishment of Carmelite monks. Vineyards have recently been planted on the mount by the German colonists of Haifa. The modern Arabic name of the mount is Kurmul, but more commonly Jebel Mar Elyas, i.e., Mount St. Elias, from the Convent of Elias.

(2.) A town in the hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:55), the residence of Nabal (1 Sam. 25:2, 5, 7, 40), and the native place of Abigail, who became David's wife (1 Sam. 27:3). Here king Uzziah had his vineyards (2 Chr. 26:10). The ruins of this town still remain under the name of Kurmul, about 10 miles south-south-east of Hebron, close to those of Maon.

Carmi - vine-dresser. (1.) The last named of the four sons of Reuben (Gen. 46:9).

(2.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 4:1). He is elsewhere (2:18) called Caleb (q.v.).

(3.) The son of Zimri, and the father of Achan (Josh. 7:1), "the troubler of Israel."

Carnal - Unconverted men are so called (1 Cor. 3:3). They are represented as of a "carnal mind, which is enmity against God" (Rom. 8:6, 7). Enjoyments that minister to the wants and desires of man's animal nature are so called (Rom. 15:27; 1 Cor. 9:11). The ceremonial of the Mosaic law is spoken of as "carnal," because it related to things outward, the bodies of men and of animals, and the purification of the flesh (Heb. 7:16; 9:10). The weapons of Christian warfare are "not carnal", that is, they are not of man's device, nor are wielded by human power (2 Cor. 10:4).

Carpenter - an artificer in stone, iron, and copper, as well as in wood (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1; Mark 6:3). The tools used by carpenters are mentioned in 1 Sam. 13:19, 20; Judg. 4:21; Isa. 10:15; 44:13. It was said of our Lord, "Is not this the carpenter's son?" (Matt. 13:55); also, "Is not this the carpenter?" (Mark 6:3). Every Jew, even the rabbis, learned some handicraft: Paul was a tentmaker. "In the cities the carpenters would be Greeks, and skilled workmen; the carpenter of a provincial village could only have held a very humble position, and secured a very moderate competence."

Carriage - In the Authorized Version this word is found as the rendering of many different words. In Judg. 18:21 it means valuables, wealth, or booty. In Isa. 46:1 (R.V., "the things that ye carried about") the word means a load for a beast of burden. In 1 Sam. 17:22 and Isa. 10:28 it is the rendering of a word ("stuff" in 1 Sam. 10:22) meaning implements, equipments, baggage. The phrase in Acts 21:15, "We took up our carriages," means properly, "We packed up our baggage," as in the Revised Version.

Cart - a vehicle moving on wheels, and usually drawn by oxen (2 Sam. 6:3). The Hebrew word thus rendered, 'agalah (1 Sam. 6:7, 8), is also rendered "wagon" (Gen. 45:19). It is used also to denote a war-chariot (Ps. 46:9). Carts were used for the removal of the ark and its sacred utensils (Num. 7:3, 6). After retaining the ark amongst them for seven months, the Philistines sent it back to the Israelites. On this occasion they set it in a new cart, probably a rude construction, with solid wooden wheels like that still used in Western Asia, which was drawn by two milch cows, which conveyed it straight to Beth-shemesh.

A "cart rope," for the purpose of fastening loads on carts, is used (Isa. 5:18) as a symbol of the power of sinful pleasures or habits over him who indulges them. (See CORD.) In Syria and Palestine wheel-carriages for any other purpose than the conveyance of agricultural produce are almost unknown.

Carve - The arts of engraving and carving were much practised among the Jews. They were practised in connection with the construction of the tabernacle and the temple (Ex. 31:2, 5; 35:33; 1 Kings 6:18, 35; Ps. 74:6), as well as in the ornamentation of the priestly dresses (Ex. 28:9-36; Zech. 3:9; 2 Chr. 2:7, 14). Isaiah (44:13-17) gives a minute description of the process of carving idols of wood.

Casement - a barrier of open-work placed before windows (Prov. 7:6). In Judg. 5:28 the Hebrew word is rendered "lattice," in the LXX. "network," an opening through which cool air is admitted.

Casiphia - silver, a place between Babylon and Jerusalem, where Iddo resided (Ezra 8:17); otherwise unknown.

Casluhim - fortified, a people descended from Mizraim (Gen. 10:14; 1 Chr. 1:12). Their original seat was probably somewhere in Lower Egypt, along the sea-coast to the south border of Palestine.

Cassia - (1.) Hebrew kiddah', i.e., "split." One of the principal spices of the holy anointing oil (Ex. 30:24), and an article of commerce (Ezek. 27:19). It is the inner bark of a tree resembling the cinnamon (q.v.), the Cinnamomum cassia of botanists, and was probably imported from India.

(2.) Hebrew pl. ketzi'oth (Ps. 45:8). Mentioned in connection with myrrh and aloes as being used to scent garments. It was probably prepared from the peeled bark, as the Hebrew word suggests, of some kind of cinnamon.

Castaway - Gr. adokimos, (1 Cor. 9:27), one regarded as unworthy (R.V., "rejected"); elsewhere rendered "reprobate" (2 Tim. 3:8, etc.); "rejected" (Heb. 6:8, etc.).

Castle - a military fortress (1 Chr. 11:7), also probably a kind of tower used by the priests for making known anything discovered at a distance (1 Chr. 6:54). Castles are also mentioned (Gen. 25:16) as a kind of watch-tower, from which shepherds kept watch over their flocks by night. The "castle" into which the chief captain commanded Paul to be brought was the quarters of the Roman soldiers in the fortress of Antonia (so called by Herod after his patron Mark Antony), which was close to the north-west corner of the temple (Acts 21:34), which it commanded.

Castor and Pollux - the "Dioscuri", two heroes of Greek and Roman mythology. Their figures were probably painted or sculptured on the prow of the ship which Luke refers to (Acts 28:11). They were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. They appeared in the heavens as the constellation Gemini.

Caterpillar - the consumer. Used in the Old Testament (1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chr. 6:28; Ps. 78:46; Isa. 33:4) as the translation of a word (hasil) the root of which means "to devour" or "consume," and which is used also with reference to the locust in Deut. 28:38. It may have been a species of locust, or the name of one of the transformations through which the locust passes, locust-grub. It is also found (Ps. 105:34; Jer. 51:14, 27; R.V., "cankerworm") as the rendering of a different Hebrew word, yelek, a word elsewhere rendered "cankerworm" (q.v.), Joel 1:4; 2:25. (See LOCUST.)

Catholic epistles - the epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude; so called because they are addressed to Christians in general, and not to any church or person in particular.

Cattle - abounded in the Holy Land. To the rearing and management of them the inhabitants chiefly devoted themselves (Deut. 8:13; 12:21; 1 Sam. 11:5; 12:3; Ps. 144:14; Jer. 3:24). They may be classified as,

(1.) Neat cattle. Many hundreds of these were yearly consumed in sacrifices or used for food. The finest herds were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num. 32:4). Large herds also pastured on the wide fertile plains of Sharon. They were yoked to the plough (1 Kings 19:19), and were employed for carrying burdens (1 Chr. 12:40). They were driven with a pointed rod (Judg. 3:31) or goad (q.v.).

According to the Mosaic law, the mouths of cattle employed for the threshing-floor were not to be muzzled, so as to prevent them from eating of the provender over which they trampled (Deut. 25:4). Whosoever stole and sold or slaughtered an ox must give five in satisfaction (Ex. 22:1); but if it was found alive in the possession of him who stole it, he was required to make double restitution only (22:4). If an ox went astray, whoever found it was required to bring it back to its owner (23:4; Deut. 22:1, 4). An ox and an ass could not be yoked together in the plough (Deut. 22:10).

(2.) Small cattle. Next to herds of neat cattle, sheep formed the most important of the possessions of the inhabitants of Palestine (Gen. 12:16; 13:5; 26:14; 21:27; 29:2, 3). They are frequently mentioned among the booty taken in war (Num. 31:32; Josh. 6:21; 1 Sam. 14:32; 15:3). There were many who were owners of large flocks (1 Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 12:2, comp. Job 1:3). Kings also had shepherds "over their flocks" (1 Chr. 27:31), from which they derived a large portion of their revenue (2 Sam. 17:29; 1 Chr. 12:40). The districts most famous for their flocks of sheep were the plain of Sharon (Isa. 65: 10), Mount Carmel (Micah 7:14), Bashan and Gilead (Micah 7:14). In patriarchal times the flocks of sheep were sometimes tended by the daughters of the owners. Thus Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen. 29:9); as also Zipporah and her six sisters had charge of their father Jethro's flocks (Ex. 2:16). Sometimes they were kept by hired shepherds (John 10:12), and sometimes by the sons of the family (1 Sam. 16:11; 17:15). The keepers so familiarized their sheep with their voices that they knew them, and followed them at their call. Sheep, but more especially rams and lambs, were frequently offered in sacrifice. The shearing of sheep was a great festive occasion (1 Sam. 25:4; 2 Sam. 13:23). They were folded at night, and guarded by their keepers against the attacks of the lion (Micah 5:8), the bear (1 Sam. 17:34), and the wolf (Matt. 10:16; John 10:12). They were liable to wander over the wide pastures and go astray (Ps. 119:176; Isa. 53:6; Hos. 4:16; Matt. 18:12).

Goats also formed a part of the pastoral wealth of Palestine (Gen. 15:9; 32:14; 37:31). They were used both for sacrifice and for food (Deut. 14:4), especially the young males (Gen. 27:9, 14, 17; Judg. 6:19; 13:15; 1 Sam. 16:20). Goat's hair was used for making tent cloth (Ex. 26:7; 36:14), and for mattresses and bedding (1 Sam. 19:13, 16). (See GOAT.)

Caul - (Heb. yothe'reth; i.e., "something redundant"), the membrane which covers the upper part of the liver (Ex. 29:13, 22; Lev. 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4; marg., "midriff"). In Hos. 13:8 (Heb. seghor; i.e., "an enclosure") the pericardium, or parts about the heart, is meant.

Cauls - In Isa. 3:18 this word (Heb. shebisim), in the marg. "networks," denotes network caps to contain the hair, worn by females. Others explain it as meaning "wreaths worn round the forehead, reaching from one ear to the other."

Causeway - a raised way, an ascent by steps, or a raised slope between Zion and the temple (1 Chr. 26:16, 18). In 2 Chr. 9:11 the same word is translated "terrace."

Cave - There are numerous natural caves among the limestone rocks of Syria, many of which have been artificially enlarged for various purposes.

The first notice of a cave occurs in the history of Lot (Gen. 19:30).

The next we read of is the cave of Machpelah (q.v.), which Abraham purchased from the sons of Heth (Gen. 25:9, 10). It was the burying-place of Sarah and of Abraham himself, also of Isaac, Rebekah, Leah, and Jacob (Gen. 49:31; 50:13).

The cave of Makkedah, into which the five Amorite kings retired after their defeat by Joshua (10:16, 27).

The cave of Adullam (q.v.), an immense natural cavern, where David hid himself from Saul (1 Sam. 22:1, 2).

The cave of Engedi (q.v.), now called 'Ain Jidy, i.e., the "Fountain of the Kid", where David cut off the skirt of Saul's robe (24:4). Here he also found a shelter for himself and his followers to the number of 600 (23:29; 24:1). "On all sides the country is full of caverns which might serve as lurking-places for David and his men, as they do for outlaws at the present day."

The cave in which Obadiah hid the prophets (1 Kings 18:4) was probably in the north, but it cannot be identified.

The cave of Elijah (1 Kings 19:9), and the "cleft" of Moses on Horeb (Ex. 33:22), cannot be determined.

In the time of Gideon the Israelites took refuge from the Midianites in dens and caves, such as abounded in the mountain regions of Manasseh (Judg. 6:2).

Caves were frequently used as dwelling-places (Num. 24:21; Cant. 2:14; Jer. 49:16; Obad. 1:3). "The excavations at Deir Dubban, on the south side of the wady leading to Santa Hanneh, are probably the dwellings of the Horites," the ancient inhabitants of Idumea Proper. The pits or cavities in rocks were also sometimes used as prisons (Isa. 24:22; 51:14; Zech. 9:11). Those which had niches in their sides were occupied as burying-places (Ezek. 32:23; John 11:38).

Cedar - (Heb. e'rez, Gr. kedros, Lat. cedrus), a tree very frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was stately (Ezek. 31:3-5), long-branched (Ps. 80:10; 92:12; Ezek. 31:6-9), odoriferous (Cant. 4:11; Hos. 14:6), durable, and therefore much used for boards, pillars, and ceilings (1 Kings 6:9, 10; 7:2; Jer. 22:14), for masts (Ezek. 27:5), and for carved images (Isa. 44:14).

It grew very abundantly in Palestine, and particularly on Lebanon, of which it was "the glory" (Isa. 35:2; 60:13). Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar trees from Lebanon for various purposes connected with the construction of the temple and the king's palace (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:2, 7; 1 Kings 5:6, 8,10; 6:9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 20; 7:2, 3, 7, 11, 12; 9:11, etc.). Cedars were used also in the building of the second temple under Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:7).

Of the ancient cedars of Lebanon there remain now only some seven or eight. They are not standing together. But beside them there are found between three hundred and four hundred of younger growth. They stand in an amphitheatre fronting the west, about 6,400 feet above the level of the sea.

The cedar is often figuratively alluded to in the sacred Scriptures. "The mighty conquerors of olden days, the despots of Assyria and the Pharaohs of Egypt, the proud and idolatrous monarchs of Judah, the Hebrew commonwealth itself, the war-like Ammonites of patriarchal times, and the moral majesty of the Messianic age, are all compared to the towering cedar, in its royal loftiness and supremacy (Isa. 2:13; Ezek. 17:3, 22, 23, 31:3-9; Amos 2:9; Zech. 11:1, 2; Job 40:17; Ps. 29:5; 80:10; 92:12, etc).", Groser's Scrip. Nat. Hist. (See BOX-TREE ¯T0000636.)

Cedron - the black torrent, the brook flowing through the ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John 18:1). (See KIDRON.)

Ceiling - the covering (1 Kings 7:3,7) of the inside roof and walls of a house with planks of wood (2 Chr. 3:5; Jer. 22:14). Ceilings were sometimes adorned with various ornaments in stucco, gold, silver, gems, and ivory. The ceilings of the temple and of Solomon's palace are described 1 Kings 6:9, 15; 7:3; 2 Chr. 3:5,9.

Cellar - a subterranean vault (1 Chr. 27:28), a storehouse. The word is also used to denote the treasury of the temple (1 Kings 7:51) and of the king (14:26). The Hebrew word is rendered "garner" in Joel 1:17, and "armoury" in Jer. 50:25.

Cenchrea - millet, the eastern harbour of Corinth, from which it was distant about 9 miles east, and the outlet for its trade with the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean. When Paul returned from his second missionary journey to Syria, he sailed from this port (Acts 18:18). In Rom. 16:1 he speaks as if there were at the time of his writing that epistle an organized church there. The western harbour of Corinth was Lechaeum, about a mile and a half from the city. It was the channel of its trade with Italy and the west.

Censer - the vessel in which incense was presented on "the golden altar" before the Lord in the temple (Ex. 30:1-9). The priest filled the censer with live coal from the sacred fire on the altar of burnt-offering, and having carried it into the sanctuary, there threw upon the burning coals the sweet incense (Lev. 16:12, 13), which sent up a cloud of smoke, filling the apartment with fragrance. The censers in daily use were of brass (Num. 16:39), and were designated by a different Hebrew name, miktereth (2 Chr. 26:19; Ezek. 8:11): while those used on the day of Atonement were of gold, and were denoted by a word (mahtah) meaning "something to take fire with;" LXX. pureion = a fire-pan. Solomon prepared for the temple censers of pure gold (1 Kings 7:50; 2 Chr. 4:22). The angel in the Apocalypse is represented with a golden censer (Rev. 8:3, 5). Paul speaks of the golden censer as belonging to the tabernacle (Heb. 9:4). The Greek word thumiaterion, here rendered "censer," may more appropriately denote, as in the margin of Revised Version, "the altar of incense." Paul does not here say that the thumiaterion was in the holiest, for it was in the holy place, but that the holiest had it, i.e., that it belonged to the holiest (1 Kings 6:22). It was intimately connected with the high priest's service in the holiest.

The manner in which the censer is to be used is described in Num. 4:14; Lev. 16:12.

Census - There are five instances of a census of the Jewish people having been taken. (1.) In the fourth month after the Exodus, when the people were encamped at Sinai. The number of men from twenty years old and upward was then 603,550 (Ex. 38:26). (2.) Another census was made just before the entrance into Canaan, when the number was found to be 601,730, showing thus a small decrease (Num. 26:51). (3.) The next census was in the time of David, when the number, exclusive of the tribes of Levi and Benjamin, was found to be 1,300,000 (2 Sam. 24:9; 1 Chr. 21:5). (4.) Solomon made a census of the foreigners in the land, and found 153,600 able-bodied workmen (2 Chr. 2:17, 18). (5.) After the return from Exile the whole congregation of Israel was numbered, and found to amount to 42,360 (Ezra 2:64). A census was made by the Roman government in the time of our Lord (Luke 2:1). (See TAXING.)

Centurion - a Roman officer in command of a hundred men (Mark 15:39, 44, 45). Cornelius, the first Gentile convert, was a centurion (Acts 10:1, 22). Other centurions are mentioned in Matt. 8:5, 8, 13; Luke 7:2, 6; Acts 21:32; 22:25, 26; 23:17, 23; 24:23; 27:1, 6, 11, 31, 43; 28:16. A centurion watched the crucifixion of our Lord (Matt. 27:54; Luke 23:47), and when he saw the wonders attending it, exclaimed, "Truly this man was the Son of God." "The centurions mentioned in the New Testament are uniformly spoken of in terms of praise, whether in the Gospels or in the Acts. It is interesting to compare this with the statement of Polybius (vi. 24), that the centurions were chosen by merit, and so were men remarkable not so much for their daring courage as for their deliberation, constancy, and strength of mind.", Dr. Maclear's N. T. Hist.

Cephas - a Syriac surname given by Christ to Simon (John 1:42), meaning "rock." The Greeks translated it by Petros, and the Latins by Petrus.

Cesarea - See CAESAREA.

Chaff - the refuse of winnowed corn. It was usually burned (Ex. 15:7; Isa. 5:24; Matt. 3:12). This word sometimes, however, means dried grass or hay (Isa. 5:24; 33:11). Chaff is used as a figure of abortive wickedness (Ps. 1:4; Matt. 3:12). False doctrines are also called chaff (Jer. 23:28), or more correctly rendered "chopped straw." The destruction of the wicked, and their powerlessness, are likened to the carrying away of chaff by the wind (Isa. 17:13; Hos. 13:3; Zeph. 2:2).

Chain - (1.) A part of the insignia of office. A chain of gold was placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. 41:42); and one was promised to Daniel (5:7). It is used as a symbol of sovereignty (Ezek. 16:11). The breast-plate of the high-priest was fastened to the ephod by golden chains (Ex. 39:17, 21).

(2.) It was used as an ornament (Prov. 1:9; Cant. 1:10). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with chains (Judg. 8:21, 26).

(3.) Chains were also used as fetters wherewith prisoners were bound (Judg. 16:21; 2 Sam. 3:34; 2 Kings 25:7; Jer. 39:7). Paul was in this manner bound to a Roman soldier (Acts 28:20; Eph. 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:16). Sometimes, for the sake of greater security, the prisoner was attached by two chains to two soldiers, as in the case of Peter (Acts 12:6).

Chalcedony - Mentioned only in Rev. 21:19, as one of the precious stones in the foundation of the New Jerusalem. The name of this stone is derived from Chalcedon, where it is said to have been first discovered. In modern mineralogy this is the name of an agate-like quartz of a bluish colour. Pliny so names the Indian ruby. The mineral intended in Revelation is probably the Hebrew nophekh, translated "emerald" (Ex. 28:18; 39:11; Ezek. 27:16; 28:13). It is rendered "anthrax" in the LXX., and "carbunculus" in the Vulgate. (See CARBUNCLE.)

Chaldea - The southern portion of Babylonia, Lower Mesopotamia, lying chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates, but commonly used of the whole of the Mesopotamian plain. The Hebrew name is Kasdim, which is usually rendered "Chaldeans" (Jer. 50:10; 51:24,35).

The country so named is a vast plain formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about 400 miles along the course of these rivers, and about 100 miles in average breadth. "In former days the vast plains of Babylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals and water-courses, which spread over the surface of the country like a network. The wants of a teeming population were supplied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands rising from a golden sea of waving corn stood frequent groves of palm-trees and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler or traveller their grateful and highly-valued shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine."

Recent discoveries, more especially in Babylonia, have thrown much light on the history of the Hebrew patriarchs, and have illustrated or confirmed the Biblical narrative in many points. The ancestor of the Hebrew people, Abram, was, we are told, born at "Ur of the Chaldees." "Chaldees" is a mistranslation of the Hebrew Kasdim, Kasdim being the Old Testament name of the Babylonians, while the Chaldees were a tribe who lived on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and did not become a part of the Babylonian population till the time of Hezekiah. Ur was one of the oldest and most famous of the Babylonian cities. Its site is now called Mugheir, or Mugayyar, on the western bank of the Euphrates, in Southern Babylonia. About a century before the birth of Abram it was ruled by a powerful dynasty of kings. Their conquests extended to Elam on the one side, and to the Lebanon on the other. They were followed by a dynasty of princes whose capital was Babylon, and who seem to have been of South Arabian origin. The founder of the dynasty was Sumu-abi ("Shem is my father"). But soon afterwards Babylonia fell under Elamite dominion. The kings of Babylon were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Elam, and a rival kingdom to that of Babylon, and governed by Elamites, sprang up at Larsa, not far from Ur, but on the opposite bank of the river. In the time of Abram the king of Larsa was Eri-Aku, the son of an Elamite prince, and Eri-Aku, as has long been recognized, is the Biblical "Arioch king of Ellasar" (Gen. 14:1). The contemporaneous king of Babylon in the north, in the country termed Shinar in Scripture, was Khammu-rabi. (See BABYLON ¯T0000409; ABRAHAM ¯T0000054; AMRAPHEL.)

Chaldee language - employed by the sacred writers in certain portions of the Old Testament, viz., Dan. 2:4-7, 28; Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Gen. 31:46; Jer. 10:11. It is the Aramaic dialect, as it is sometimes called, as distinguished from the Hebrew dialect. It was the language of commerce and of social intercourse in Western Asia, and after the Exile gradually came to be the popular language of Palestine. It is called "Syrian" in 2 Kings 18:26. Some isolated words in this language are preserved in the New Testament (Matt. 5:22; 6:24; 16:17; 27:46; Mark 3:17; 5:41; 7:34; 14:36; Acts 1:19; 1 Cor. 16:22). These are specimens of the vernacular language of Palestine at that period. The term "Hebrew" was also sometimes applied to the Chaldee because it had become the language of the Hebrews (John 5:2; 19:20).

Chaldees - or Chaldeans, the inhabitants of the country of which Babylon was the capital. They were so called till the time of the Captivity (2 Kings 25; Isa. 13:19; 23:13), when, particularly in the Book of Daniel (5:30; 9:1), the name began to be used with special reference to a class of learned men ranked with the magicians and astronomers. These men cultivated the ancient Cushite language of the original inhabitants of the land, for they had a "learning" and a "tongue" (1:4) of their own. The common language of the country at that time had become assimilated to the Semitic dialect, especially through the influence of the Assyrians, and was the language that was used for all civil purposes. The Chaldeans were the learned class, interesting themselves in science and religion, which consisted, like that of the ancient Arabians and Syrians, in the worship of the heavenly bodies. There are representations of this priestly class, of magi and diviners, on the walls of the Assyrian palaces.

Chamber - "on the wall," which the Shunammite prepared for the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 4:10), was an upper chamber over the porch through the hall toward the street. This was the "guest chamber" where entertainments were prepared (Mark 14:14). There were also "chambers within chambers" (1 Kings 22:25; 2 Kings 9:2). To enter into a chamber is used metaphorically of prayer and communion with God (Isa. 26:20). The "chambers of the south" (Job 9:9) are probably the constelations of the southern hemisphere. The "chambers of imagery", i.e., chambers painted with images, as used by Ezekiel (8:12), is an expression denoting the vision the prophet had of the abominations practised by the Jews in Jerusalem.

Chambering - (Rom. 13:13), wantonness, impurity.

Chamberlain - a confidential servant of the king (Gen. 37:36; 39:1). In Rom. 16:23 mention is made of "Erastus the chamberlain." Here the word denotes the treasurer of the city, or the quaestor, as the Romans styled him. He is almost the only convert from the higher ranks of whom mention is made (comp. Acts 17:34). Blastus, Herod's "chamberlain" (Acts 12:20), was his personal attendant or valet-de-chambre. The Hebrew word saris, thus translated in Esther 1:10, 15; 2:3, 14, 21, etc., properly means an eunuch (as in the marg.), as it is rendered in Isa. 39:7; 56:3.

Chameleon - a species of lizard which has the faculty of changing the colour of its skin. It is ranked among the unclean animals in Lev. 11:30, where the Hebrew word so translated is coah (R.V., "land crocodile"). In the same verse the Hebrew tanshemeth, rendered in Authorized Version "mole," is in Revised Version "chameleon," which is the correct rendering. This animal is very common in Egypt and in the Holy Land, especially in the Jordan valley.

Chamois - only in Deut. 14:5 (Heb. zemer), an animal of the deer or gazelle species. It bears this Hebrew name from its leaping or springing. The animal intended is probably the wild sheep (Ovis tragelephus), which is still found in Sinai and in the broken ridges of Stony Arabia. The LXX. and Vulgate render the word by camelopardus, i.e., the giraffe; but this is an animal of Central Africa, and is not at all known in Syria.

Champion - (1 Sam. 17:4, 23), properly "the man between the two," denoting the position of Goliath between the two camps. Single combats of this kind at the head of armies were common in ancient times. In ver. 51 this word is the rendering of a different Hebrew word, and properly denotes "a mighty man."

Chance - (Luke 10:31). "It was not by chance that the priest came down by that road at that time, but by a specific arrangement and in exact fulfilment of a plan; not the plan of the priest, nor the plan of the wounded traveller, but the plan of God. By coincidence (Gr. sungkuria) the priest came down, that is, by the conjunction of two things, in fact, which were previously constituted a pair in the providence of God. In the result they fell together according to the omniscient Designer's plan. This is the true theory of the divine government." Compare the meeting of Philip with the Ethiopian (Acts 8:26, 27). There is no "chance" in God's empire. "Chance" is only another word for our want of knowledge as to the way in which one event falls in with another (1 Sam. 6:9; Eccl. 9:11).

Chancellor - one who has judicial authority, literally, a "lord of judgement;" a title given to the Persian governor of Samaria (Ezra 4:8, 9, 17).

Changes of raiment - were reckoned among the treasures of rich men (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12, 13; 2 Kings 5:22, 23).

Channel - (1.) The bed of the sea or of a river (Ps. 18:15; Isa. 8:7).

(2.) The "chanelbone" (Job 31:22 marg.), properly "tube" or "shaft," an old term for the collar-bone.

Chapel - a holy place or sanctuary, occurs only in Amos 7:13, where one of the idol priests calls Bethel "the king's chapel."

Chapiter - the ornamental head or capital of a pillar. Three Hebrew words are so rendered. (1.) Cothereth (1 Kings 7:16; 2 Kings 25:17; 2 Chr. 4:12), meaning a "diadem" or "crown." (2.) Tzepheth (2 Chr. 3:15). (3.) Rosh (Ex. 36:38; 38:17, 19, 28), properly a "head" or "top."

Chapter - The several books of the Old and New Testaments were from an early time divided into chapters. The Pentateuch was divided by the ancient Hebrews into 54 parshioth or sections, one of which was read in the synagogue every Sabbath day (Acts. 13:15). These sections were afterwards divided into 669 sidrim or orders of unequal length. The Prophets were divided in somewhat the same manner into haphtaroth or passages.

In the early Latin and Greek versions of the Bible, similar divisions of the several books were made. The New Testament books were also divided into portions of various lengths under different names, such as titles and heads or chapters.

In modern times this ancient example was imitated, and many attempts of the kind were made before the existing division into chapters was fixed. The Latin Bible published by Cardinal Hugo of St. Cher in A.D. 1240 is generally regarded as the first Bible that was divided into our present chapters, although it appears that some of the chapters were fixed as early as A.D. 1059. This division into chapters came gradually to be adopted in the published editions of the Hebrew, with some few variations, and of the Greek Scriptures, and hence of other versions.

Charashim - craftsmen, a valley named in 1 Chr. 4:14. In Neh. 11:35 the Hebrew word is rendered "valley of craftsmen" (R.V. marg., Geha-rashim). Nothing is known of it.

Charger - a bowl or deep dish. The silver vessels given by the heads of the tribes for the services of the tabernacle are so named (Num. 7:13, etc.). The "charger" in which the Baptist's head was presented was a platter or flat wooden trencher (Matt. 14:8, 11; Mark 6:25, 28). The chargers of gold and silver of Ezra 1:9 were probably basins for receiving the blood of sacrifices.

Chariot - a vehicle generally used for warlike purposes. Sometimes, though but rarely, it is spoken of as used for peaceful purposes.

The first mention of the chariot is when Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's second state chariot (Gen. 41:43); and the next, when he went out in his own chariot to meet his father Jacob (46:29). Chariots formed part of the funeral procession of Jacob (50:9). When Pharaoh pursued the Israelites he took 600 war-chariots with him (Ex. 14:7). The Canaanites in the valleys of Palestine had chariots of iron (Josh. 17:18; Judg. 1:19). Jabin, the king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Judg. 4:3); and in Saul's time the Philistines had 30,000. In his wars with the king of Zobah and with the Syrians, David took many chariots among the spoils (2 Sam. 8:4; 10:18). Solomon maintained as part of his army 1,400 chariots (1 Kings 10:26), which were chiefly imported from Egypt (29). From this time forward they formed part of the armies of Israel (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Kings 9:16, 21; 13:7, 14; 18:24; 23:30).

In the New Testament we have only one historical reference to the use of chariots, in the case of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts. 8:28, 29, 38).

This word is sometimes used figuratively for hosts (Ps. 68:17; 2 Kings 6:17). Elijah, by his prayers and his counsel, was "the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof." The rapid agency of God in the phenomena of nature is also spoken of under the similitude of a chariot (Ps. 104:3; Isa. 66:15; Hab. 3:8).

Chariot of the cherubim (1 Chr. 28:18), the chariot formed by the two cherubs on the mercy-seat on which the Lord rides.

Chariot cities were set apart for storing the war-chariots in time of peace (2 Chr. 1:14).

Chariot horses were such as were peculiarly fitted for service in chariots (2 Kings 7:14).

Chariots of war are described in Ex. 14:7; 1 Sam. 13:5; 2 Sam. 8:4; 1 Chr. 18:4; Josh. 11:4; Judg. 4:3, 13. They were not used by the Israelites till the time of David. Elijah was translated in a "chariot of fire" (2 Kings 2:11). Comp. 2 Kings 6:17. This vision would be to Elisha a source of strength and encouragement, for now he could say, "They that be with us are more than they that be with them."

Charity - (1 Cor. 13), the rendering in the Authorized Version of the word which properly denotes love, and is frequently so rendered (always so in the Revised Version). It is spoken of as the greatest of the three Christian graces (1 Cor. 12:31-13:13).

Charmer - one who practises serpent-charming (Ps. 58:5; Jer. 8:17; Eccl. 10:11). It was an early and universal opinion that the most venomous reptiles could be made harmless by certain charms or by sweet sounds. It is well known that there are jugglers in India and in other Eastern lands who practise this art at the present day.

In Isa. 19:3 the word "charmers" is the rendering of the Hebrew 'ittim, meaning, properly, necromancers (R.V. marg., "whisperers"). In Deut. 18:11 the word "charmer" means a dealer in spells, especially one who, by binding certain knots, was supposed thereby to bind a curse or a blessing on its object. In Isa. 3:3 the words "eloquent orator" should be, as in the Revised Version, "skilful enchanter."

Charran - another form (Acts 7:2, 4) of Haran (q.v.).

Chebar - length, a river in the "land of the Chaldeans" (Ezek. 1:3), on the banks of which were located some of the Jews of the Captivity (Ezek. 1:1; 3:15, 23; 10:15, 20, 22). It has been supposed to be identical with the river Habor, the Chaboras, or modern Khabour, which falls into the Euphrates at Circesium. To the banks of this river some of the Israelites were removed by the Assyrians (2 Kings 17:6). An opinion that has much to support it is that the "Chebar" was the royal canal of Nebuchadnezzar, the Nahr Malcha, the greatest in Mesopotamia, which connected the Tigris with the Euphrates, in the excavation of which the Jewish captives were probably employed.

Chedorlaomer - (= Khudur-Lagamar of the inscriptions), king of Elam. Many centuries before the age of Abraham, Canaan and even the Sinaitic peninsula had been conquered by Babylonian kings, and in the time of Abraham himself Babylonia was ruled by a dynasty which claimed sovereignity over Syria and Palestine. The kings of the dynasty bore names which were not Babylonian, but at once South Arabic and Hebrew. The most famous king of the dynasty was Khammu-rabi, who united Babylonia under one rule, and made Babylon its capital. When he ascended the throne, the country was under the suzerainty of the Elamites, and was divided into two kingdoms, that of Babylon (the Biblical Shinar) and that of Larsa (the Biblical Ellasar). The king of Larsa was Eri-Aku ("the servant of the moon-god"), the son of an Elamite prince, Kudur-Mabug, who is entitled "the father of the land of the Amorites." A recently discovered tablet enumerates among the enemies of Khammu-rabi, Kudur-Lagamar ("the servant of the goddess Lagamar") or Chedorlaomer, Eri-Aku or Arioch, and Tudkhula or Tidal. Khammu-rabi, whose name is also read Ammi-rapaltu or Amraphel by some scholars, succeeded in overcoming Eri-Aku and driving the Elamites out of Babylonia. Assur-bani-pal, the last of the Assyrian conquerors, mentions in two inscriptions that he took Susa 1635 years after Kedor-nakhunta, king of Elam, had conquered Babylonia. It was in the year B.C. 660 that Assur-bani-pal took Susa.

Cheek - Smiting on the cheek was accounted a grievous injury and insult (Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Micah 5:1). The admonition (Luke 6:29), "Unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other," means simply, "Resist not evil" (Matt. 5:39; 1 Pet. 2:19-23). Ps. 3:7 = that God had deprived his enemies of the power of doing him injury.

Cheese - (A.S. cese). This word occurs three times in the Authorized Version as the translation of three different Hebrew words: (1.) 1 Sam. 17:18, "ten cheeses;" i.e., ten sections of curd. (2.) 2 Sam. 17:29, "cheese of kine" = perhaps curdled milk of kine. The Vulgate version reads "fat calves." (3.) Job 10:10, curdled milk is meant by the word.

Chemarim - black, (Zeph. 1:4; rendered "idolatrous priests" in 2 Kings 23:5, and "priests" in Hos. 10:5). Some derive this word from the Assyrian Kamaru, meaning "to throw down," and interpret it as describing the idolatrous priests who prostrate themselves before the idols. Others regard it as meaning "those who go about in black," or "ascetics."

Chemosh - the destroyer, subduer, or fish-god, the god of the Moabites (Num. 21:29; Jer. 48:7, 13, 46). The worship of this god, "the abomination of Moab," was introduced at Jerusalem by Solomon (1 Kings 11:7), but was abolished by Josiah (2 Kings 23:13). On the "Moabite Stone" (q.v.), Mesha (2 Kings 3:5) ascribes his victories over the king of Israel to this god, "And Chemosh drove him before my sight."

Chenaanah - merchant. (1.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 7:10). (2.) The father of Zedekiah (1 Kings 22:11, 24).

Chenaiah - whom Jehovah hath made. "Chief of the Levites," probably a Kohathite (1 Chr. 15:22), and therefore not the same as mentioned in 26:29.

Chephirah - village, one of the four cities of the Gibeonitish Hivites with whom Joshua made a league (9:17). It belonged to Benjamin. It has been identified with the modern Kefireh, on the west confines of Benjamin, about 2 miles west of Ajalon and 11 from Jerusalem.

Cherethim - (Ezek. 25:16), more frequently Cherethites, the inhabitants of Southern Philistia, the Philistines (Zeph. 2:5). The Cherethites and the Pelethites were David's life-guards (1 Sam. 30:14; 2 Sam. 8:18; 20:7, 23; 23:23). This name is by some interpreted as meaning "Cretans," and by others "executioners," who were ready to execute the king's sentence of death (Gen. 37:36, marg.; 1 Kings 2:25).

Cherith - a cutting; separation; a gorge, a torrent-bed or winter-stream, a "brook," in whose banks the prophet Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (1 Kings 17:3, 5). It has by some been identified as the Wady el-Kelt behind Jericho, which is formed by the junction of many streams flowing from the mountains west of Jericho. It is dry in summer. Travellers have described it as one of the wildest ravines of this wild region, and peculiarly fitted to afford a secure asylum to the persecuted. But if the prophet's interview with Ahab was in Samaria, and he thence journeyed toward the east, it is probable that he crossed Jordan and found refuge in some of the ravines of Gilead. The "brook" is said to have been "before Jordan," which probably means that it opened toward that river, into which it flowed. This description would apply to the east as well as to the west of Jordan. Thus Elijah's hiding-place may have been the Jermuk, in the territory of the half-tribe of Manasseh.

Cherub - plural cherubim, the name of certain symbolical figures frequently mentioned in Scripture. They are first mentioned in connection with the expulsion of our first parents from Eden (Gen. 3:24). There is no intimation given of their shape or form. They are next mentioned when Moses was commanded to provide furniture for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:17-20; 26:1, 31). God promised to commune with Moses "from between the cherubim" (25:22). This expression was afterwards used to denote the Divine abode and presence (Num. 7:89; 1 Sam. 4:4; Isa. 37:16; Ps. 80:1; 99:1). In Ezekiel's vision (10:1-20) they appear as living creatures supporting the throne of God. From Ezekiel's description of them (1;10; 41:18, 19), they appear to have been compound figures, unlike any real object in nature; artificial images possessing the features and properties of several animals. Two cherubim were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark; two of colossal size overshadowed it in Solomon's temple. Ezekiel (1:4-14) speaks of four; and this number of "living creatures" is mentioned in Rev. 4:6. Those on the ark are called the "cherubim of glory" (Heb. 9:5), i.e., of the Shechinah, or cloud of glory, for on them the visible glory of God rested. They were placed one at each end of the mercy-seat, with wings stretched upward, and their faces "toward each other and toward the mercy-seat." They were anointed with holy oil, like the ark itself and the other sacred furniture.

The cherubim were symbolical. They were intended to represent spiritual existences in immediate contact with Jehovah. Some have regarded them as symbolical of the chief ruling power by which God carries on his operations in providence (Ps. 18:10). Others interpret them as having reference to the redemption of men, and as symbolizing the great rulers or ministers of the church. Many other opinions have been held regarding them which need not be referred to here. On the whole, it seems to be most satisfactory to regard the interpretation of the symbol to be variable, as is the symbol itself.

Their office was, (1) on the expulsion of our first parents from Eden, to prevent all access to the tree of life; and (2) to form the throne and chariot of Jehovah in his manifestation of himself on earth. He dwelleth between and sitteth on the cherubim (1 Sam. 4:4; Ps. 80:1; Ezek. 1:26, 28).

Chesalon - strength; confidence, a place on the border of Judah, on the side of Mount Jearim (Josh. 15:10); probably identified with the modern village of Kesla, on the western mountains of Judah.

Chesed - gain, the son of Nahor (Gen. 22:22).

Chesil - ungodly, a town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:30); probably the same as Bethul (19:4) and Bethuel (1 Chr. 4:30); now Khelasa.

Chest - (Heb. 'aron, generally rendered "ark"), the coffer into which the contributions for the repair of the temple were put (2 Kings 12:9, 10; 2 Chr. 24:8, 10, 11). In Gen. 50:26 it is rendered "coffin." In Ezek. 27:24 a different Hebrew word, genazim (plur.), is used. It there means "treasure-chests."

Chestnut tree - (Heb. 'armon; i.e., "naked"), mentioned in connection with Jacob's artifice regarding the cattle (Gen. 30:37). It is one of the trees of which, because of its strength and beauty, the Assyrian empire is likened (Ezek. 31:8; R.V., "plane trees"). It is probably the Oriental plane tree (Platanus orientalis) that is intended. It is a characteristic of this tree that it annually sheds its outer bark, becomes "naked." The chestnut tree proper is not a native of Palestine.

Chesulloth - fertile places; the loins, a town of Issachar, on the slopes of some mountain between Jezreel and Shunem (Josh. 19:18). It has been identified with Chisloth-tabor, 2 1/2 miles to the west of Mount Tabor, and north of Jezreel; now Iksal.

Chezib - deceitful, a town where Shelah, the son of Judah, was born (Gen. 38:5). Probably the same as Achzib (q.v.).

Chidon - dart, the name of the threshing-floor at which the death of Uzzah took place (1 Chr. 13:9). In the parallel passage in Samuel (2 Sam. 6:6) it is called "Nachon's threshing-floor." It was a place not far north-west from Jerus

Chief of the three - a title given to Adino the Eznite, one of David's greatest heroes (2 Sam. 23:8); also called Jashobeam (1 Chr. 11:11).

Chief priest - See PRIEST.

Chiefs of Asia - "Asiarchs," the title given to certain wealthy persons annually appointed to preside over the religious festivals and games in the various cities of proconsular Asia (Acts 19:31). Some of these officials appear to have been Paul's friends.

Child - This word has considerable latitude of meaning in Scripture. Thus Joseph is called a child at the time when he was probably about sixteen years of age (Gen. 37:3); and Benjamin is so called when he was above thirty years (44:20). Solomon called himself a little child when he came to the kingdom (1 Kings 3:7).

The descendants of a man, however remote, are called his children; as, "the children of Edom," "the children of Moab," "the children of Israel."

In the earliest times mothers did not wean their children till they were from thirty months to three years old; and the day on which they were weaned was kept as a festival day (Gen. 21:8; Ex. 2:7, 9; 1 Sam. 1:22-24; Matt. 21:16). At the age of five, children began to learn the arts and duties of life under the care of their fathers (Deut. 6:20-25; 11:19).

To have a numerous family was regarded as a mark of divine favour (Gen. 11:30; 30:1; 1 Sam. 2:5; 2 Sam. 6:23; Ps. 127:3; 128:3).

Figuratively the name is used for those who are ignorant or narrow-minded (Matt. 11:16; Luke 7:32; 1 Cor. 13:11). "When I was a child, I spake as a child." "Brethren, be not children in understanding" (1 Cor. 14:20). "That we henceforth be no more children, tossed to and fro" (Eph. 4:14).

Children are also spoken of as representing simplicity and humility (Matt. 19:13-15; Mark 10:13-16; Luke 18:15-17). Believers are "children of light" (Luke 16:8; 1 Thess. 5:5) and "children of obedience" (1 Pet. 1:14).

Chileab - protected by the father, David's second son by Abigail (2 Sam. 3:3); called also Daniel (1 Chr. 3:1). He seems to have died when young.

Chilion - the pining one, the younger son of Elimelech and Naomi, and husband of Orpah, Ruth's sister (Ruth 1:2; 4:9).

Chilmad - a place or country unknown which, along with Sheba and Asshur, traded with Tyre (Ezek. 27:23).

Chimham - pining, probably the youngest son of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam. 19:37-40). The "habitation of Chimham" (Jer. 41:17) was probably an inn or khan, which is the proper meaning of the Hebrew geruth, rendered "habitation", established in later times in his possession at Bethlehem, which David gave to him as a reward for his loyalty in accompanying him to Jerusalem after the defeat of Absalom (1 Kings 2:7). It has been supposed that, considering the stationary character of Eastern institutions, it was in the stable of this inn or caravanserai that our Saviour was born (Luke 2:7).

Chinnereth - lyre, the singular form of the word (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 19:35), which is also used in the plural form, Chinneroth, the name of a fenced city which stood near the shore of the lake of Galilee, a little to the south of Tiberias. The town seems to have given its name to a district, as appears from 1 Kings 15:20, where the plural form of the word is used.

The Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 34:11; Josh. 13:27), or of Chinneroth (Josh. 12: 3), was the "lake of Gennesaret" or "sea of Tiberias" (Deut. 3:17; Josh. 11:2). Chinnereth was probably an ancient Canaanitish name adopted by the Israelites into their language.

Chios - mentioned in Acts 20:15, an island in the Aegean Sea, about 5 miles distant from the mainland, having a roadstead, in the shelter of which Paul and his companions anchored for a night when on his third missionary return journey. It is now called Scio.

Chisleu - the name adopted from the Babylonians by the Jews after the Captivity for the third civil, or ninth ecclesiastical, month (Neh. 1:1; Zech. 7:1). It corresponds nearly with the moon in November.

Chittim - or Kittim, a plural form (Gen. 10:4), the name of a branch of the descendants of Javan, the "son" of Japheth. Balaam foretold (Num. 24:24) "that ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and afflict Eber." Daniel prophesied (11:30) that the ships of Chittim would come against the king of the north. It probably denotes Cyprus, whose ancient capital was called Kition by the Greeks.

The references elsewhere made to Chittim (Isa. 23:1, 12; Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:6) are to be explained on the ground that while the name originally designated the Phoenicians only, it came latterly to be used of all the islands and various settlements on the sea-coasts which they had occupied, and then of the people who succeeded them when the Phoenician power decayed. Hence it designates generally the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean and the races that inhabit them.

Chiun - occurs only in Amos 5:26 (R.V. marg., "shrine"). The LXX. translated the word by Rhephan, which became corrupted into Remphan, as used by Stephen (Acts 7:43; but R.V., "Rephan"). Probably the planet Saturn is intended by the name. Astrologers represented this planet as baleful in its influences, and hence the Phoenicians offered to it human sacrifices, especially children.

Chloe - verdure, a female Christian (1 Cor. 1:11), some of whose household had informed Paul of the divided state of the Corinthian church. Nothing is known of her.

Chor-ashan - smoking furnace, one of the places where "David himself and his men were wont to haunt" (1 Sam. 30:30, 31). It is probably identical with Ashan (Josh. 15:42; 19:7), a Simeonite city in the Negeb, i.e., the south, belonging to Judah. The word ought, according to another reading, to be "Bor-ashan."

Chorazin - named along with Bethsaida and Capernaum as one of the cities in which our Lord's "mighty works" were done, and which was doomed to woe because of signal privileges neglected (Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13). It has been identified by general consent with the modern Kerazeh, about 2 1/2 miles up the Wady Kerazeh from Capernaum; i.e., Tell Hum.

Chosen - spoken of warriors (Ex. 15:4; Judg. 20:16), of the Hebrew nation (Ps. 105:43; Deut. 7:7), of Jerusalem as the seat of the temple (1 Kings 11:13). Christ is the "chosen" of God (Isa. 42:1); and the apostles are "chosen" for their work (Acts 10:41). It is said with regard to those who do not profit by their opportunities that "many are called, but few are chosen" (Matt. 20:16). (See ELECTION.)

Chozeba - (1 Chr. 4:22), the same as Chezib and Achzib, a place in the lowlands of Judah (Gen. 38:5; Josh. 15:44).

Christ - anointed, the Greek translation of the Hebrew word rendered "Messiah" (q.v.), the official title of our Lord, occurring five hundred and fourteen times in the New Testament. It denotes that he was anointed or consecrated to his great redemptive work as Prophet, Priest, and King of his people. He is Jesus the Christ (Acts 17:3; 18:5; Matt. 22:42), the Anointed One. He is thus spoken of by Isaiah (61:1), and by Daniel (9:24-26), who styles him "Messiah the Prince."

The Messiah is the same person as "the seed of the woman" (Gen. 3:15), "the seed of Abraham" (Gen. 22:18), the "Prophet like unto Moses" (Deut. 18:15), "the priest after the order of Melchizedek" (Ps. 110:4), "the rod out of the stem of Jesse" (Isa. 11:1, 10), the "Immanuel," the virgin's son (Isa. 7:14), "the branch of Jehovah" (Isa. 4:2), and "the messenger of the covenant" (Mal. 3:1). This is he "of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write." The Old Testament Scripture is full of prophetic declarations regarding the Great Deliverer and the work he was to accomplish. Jesus the Christ is Jesus the Great Deliverer, the Anointed One, the Saviour of men. This name denotes that Jesus was divinely appointed, commissioned, and accredited as the Saviour of men (Heb. 5:4; Isa. 11:2-4; 49:6; John 5:37; Acts 2:22).

To believe that "Jesus is the Christ" is to believe that he is the Anointed, the Messiah of the prophets, the Saviour sent of God, that he was, in a word, what he claimed to be. This is to believe the gospel, by the faith of which alone men can be brought unto God. That Jesus is the Christ is the testimony of God, and the faith of this constitutes a Christian (1 Cor. 12:3; 1 John 5:1).

Christian - the name given by the Greeks or Romans, probably in reproach, to the followers of Jesus. It was first used at Antioch. The names by which the disciples were known among themselves were "brethren," "the faithful," "elect," "saints," "believers." But as distinguishing them from the multitude without, the name "Christian" came into use, and was universally accepted. This name occurs but three times in the New Testament (Acts 11:26; 26:28; 1 Pet. 4:16).

Christs, False - Our Lord warned his disciples that they would arise (Matt. 24:24). It is said that no fewer than twenty-four persons have at different times appeared (the last in 1682) pretending to be the Messiah of the prophets.

Chronicles - the words of the days, (1 Kings 14:19; 1 Chr. 27:24), the daily or yearly records of the transactions of the kingdom; events recorded in the order of time.

Chronicles, Books of - The two books were originally one. They bore the title in the Massoretic Hebrew Dibre hayyamim, i.e., "Acts of the Days." This title was rendered by Jerome in his Latin version "Chronicon," and hence "Chronicles." In the Septuagint version the book is divided into two, and bears the title Paraleipomena, i.e., "things omitted," or "supplements", because containing many things omitted in the Books of Kings.

The contents of these books are comprehended under four heads. (1.) The first nine chapters of Book I. contain little more than a list of genealogies in the line of Israel down to the time of David. (2.) The remainder of the first book contains a history of the reign of David. (3.) The first nine chapters of Book II. contain the history of the reign of Solomon. (4.) The remaining chapters of the second book contain the history of the separate kingdom of Judah to the time of the return from Babylonian Exile.

The time of the composition of the Chronicles was, there is every ground to conclude, subsequent to the Babylonian Exile, probably between 450 and 435 B.C. The contents of this twofold book, both as to matter and form, correspond closely with this idea. The close of the book records the proclamation of Cyrus permitting the Jews to return to their own land, and this forms the opening passage of the Book of Ezra, which must be viewed as a continuation of the Chronicles. The peculiar form of the language, being Aramaean in its general character, harmonizes also with that of the books which were written after the Exile. The author was certainly contemporary with Zerubbabel, details of whose family history are given (1 Chr. 3:19).

The time of the composition being determined, the question of the authorship may be more easily decided. According to Jewish tradition, which was universally received down to the middle of the seventeenth century, Ezra was regarded as the author of the Chronicles. There are many points of resemblance and of contact between the Chronicles and the Book of Ezra which seem to confirm this opinion. The conclusion of the one and the beginning of the other are almost identical in expression. In their spirit and characteristics they are the same, showing thus also an identity of authorship.

In their general scope and design these books are not so much historical as didactic. The principal aim of the writer appears to be to present moral and religious truth. He does not give prominence to political occurences, as is done in Samuel and Kings, but to ecclesiastical institutions. "The genealogies, so uninteresting to most modern readers, were really an important part of the public records of the Hebrew state. They were the basis on which not only the land was distributed and held, but the public services of the temple were arranged and conducted, the Levites and their descendants alone, as is well known, being entitled and first fruits set apart for that purpose." The "Chronicles" are an epitome of the sacred history from the days of Adam down to the return from Babylonian Exile, a period of about 3,500 years. The writer gathers up "the threads of the old national life broken by the Captivity."

The sources whence the chronicler compiled his work were public records, registers, and genealogical tables belonging to the Jews. These are referred to in the course of the book (1 Chr. 27:24; 29:29; 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18, 19; 27:7; 35:25). There are in Chronicles, and the books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, often verbal, proving that the writer both knew and used these records (1 Chr. 17:18; comp. 2 Sam. 7:18-20; 1 Chr. 19; comp. 2 Sam. 10, etc.).

As compared with Samuel and Kings, the Book of Chronicles omits many particulars there recorded (2 Sam. 6:20-23; 9; 11; 14-19, etc.), and includes many things peculiar to itself (1 Chr. 12; 22; 23-26; 27; 28; 29, etc.). Twenty whole chapters, and twenty-four parts of chapters, are occupied with matter not found elsewhere. It also records many things in fuller detail, as (e.g.) the list of David's heroes (1 Chr. 12:1-37), the removal of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Mount Zion (1 Chr. 13; 15:2-24; 16:4-43; comp. 2 Sam. 6), Uzziah's leprosy and its cause (2 Chr. 26:16-21; comp. 2 Kings 15:5), etc.

It has also been observed that another peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes modern and more common expressions for those that had then become unusual or obsolete. This is seen particularly in the substitution of modern names of places, such as were in use in the writer's day, for the old names; thus Gezer (1 Chr. 20:4) is used instead of Gob (2 Sam. 21:18), etc.

The Books of Chronicles are ranked among the khethubim or hagiographa. They are alluded to, though not directly quoted, in the New Testament (Heb. 5:4; Matt. 12:42; 23:35; Luke 1:5; 11:31, 51).

Chronicles of king David - (1 Chr. 27:24) were statistical state records; one of the public sources from which the compiler of the Books of Chronicles derived information on various public matters.

Chronology - is the arrangement of facts and events in the order of time. The writers of the Bible themselves do not adopt any standard era according to which they date events. Sometimes the years are reckoned, e.g., from the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:1; 33:38; 1 Kings 6:1), and sometimes from the accession of kings (1 Kings 15:1, 9, 25, 33, etc.), and sometimes again from the return from Exile (Ezra 3:8).

Hence in constructing a system of Biblecal chronology, the plan has been adopted of reckoning the years from the ages of the patriarchs before the birth of their first-born sons for the period from the Creation to Abraham. After this period other data are to be taken into account in determining the relative sequence of events.

As to the patriarchal period, there are three principal systems of chronology: (1) that of the Hebrew text, (2) that of the Septuagint version, and (3) that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, as seen in the scheme on the opposite page.

The Samaritan and the Septuagint have considerably modified the Hebrew chronology. This modification some regard as having been wilfully made, and to be rejected. The same system of variations is observed in the chronology of the period between the Flood and Abraham. Thus:

The Septuagint fixes on seventy years as the age of Terah at the birth of Abraham, from Gen. 11:26; but a comparison of Gen. 11:32 and Acts 7:4 with Gen. 12:4 shows that when Terah died, at the age of two hundred and five years, Abraham was seventy-five years, and hence Terah must have been one hundred and thirty years when Abraham was born. Thus, including the two years from the Flood to the birth of Arphaxad, the period from the Flood to the birth of Abraham was three hundred and fifty-two years.

The next period is from the birth of Abraham to the Exodus. This, according to the Hebrew, extends to five hundred and five years. The difficulty here is as to the four hundred and thirty years mentioned Ex. 12:40, 41; Gal. 3:17. These years are regarded by some as dating from the covenant with Abraham (Gen. 15), which was entered into soon after his sojourn in Egypt; others, with more probability, reckon these years from Jacob's going down into Egypt. (See EXODUS.)

In modern times the systems of Biblical chronology that have been adopted are chiefly those of Ussher and Hales. The former follows the Hebrew, and the latter the Septuagint mainly. Archbishop Ussher's (died 1656) system is called the short chronology. It is that given on the margin of the Authorized Version, but is really of no authority, and is quite uncertain.

To show at a glance the different ideas of the date of the creation, it may be interesting to note the following: From Creation to 1894.

According to Ussher, 5,898; Hales, 7,305; Zunz (Hebrew reckoning), 5,882; Septuagint (Perowne), 7,305; Rabbinical, 5,654; Panodorus, 7,387; Anianus, 7,395; Constantinopolitan, 7,403; Eusebius, 7,093; Scaliger, 5,844; Dionysius (from whom we take our Christian era), 7,388; Maximus, 7,395; Syncellus and Theophanes, 7,395; Julius Africanus, 7,395; Jackson, 7,320.

Chrysoprasus - golden leek, a precious stone of the colour of leek's juice, a greenish-golden colour (Rev. 21:20).

Chub - the name of a people in alliance with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar. The word is found only in Ezek. 30:5. They were probably a people of Northern Africa, or of the lands near Egypt in the south.

Chun - one of the cities of Hadarezer, king of Syria. David procured brass (i.e., bronze or copper) from it for the temple (1 Chr. 18:8). It is called Berothai in 2 Sam. 8:8; probably the same as Berothah in Ezek. 47:16.

Church - Derived probably from the Greek kuriakon (i.e., "the Lord's house"), which was used by ancient authors for the place of worship.

In the New Testament it is the translation of the Greek word ecclesia, which is synonymous with the Hebrew kahal of the Old Testament, both words meaning simply an assembly, the character of which can only be known from the connection in which the word is found. There is no clear instance of its being used for a place of meeting or of worship, although in post-apostolic times it early received this meaning. Nor is this word ever used to denote the inhabitants of a country united in the same profession, as when we say the "Church of England," the "Church of Scotland," etc.

We find the word ecclesia used in the following senses in the New Testament: (1.) It is translated "assembly" in the ordinary classical sense (Acts 19:32, 39, 41).

(2.) It denotes the whole body of the redeemed, all those whom the Father has given to Christ, the invisible catholic church (Eph. 5:23, 25, 27, 29; Heb. 12:23).

(3.) A few Christians associated together in observing the ordinances of the gospel are an ecclesia (Rom. 16:5; Col. 4:15).

(4.) All the Christians in a particular city, whether they assembled together in one place or in several places for religious worship, were an ecclesia. Thus all the disciples in Antioch, forming several congregations, were one church (Acts 13:1); so also we read of the "church of God at Corinth" (1 Cor. 1:2), "the church at Jerusalem" (Acts 8:1), "the church of Ephesus" (Rev. 2:1), etc.

(5.) The whole body of professing Christians throughout the world (1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Matt. 16:18) are the church of Christ.

The church visible "consists of all those throughout the world that profess the true religion, together with their children." It is called "visible" because its members are known and its assemblies are public. Here there is a mixture of "wheat and chaff," of saints and sinners. "God has commanded his people to organize themselves into distinct visible ecclesiastical communities, with constitutions, laws, and officers, badges, ordinances, and discipline, for the great purpose of giving visibility to his kingdom, of making known the gospel of that kingdom, and of gathering in all its elect subjects. Each one of these distinct organized communities which is faithful to the great King is an integral part of the visible church, and all together constitute the catholic or universal visible church." A credible profession of the true religion constitutes a person a member of this church. This is "the kingdom of heaven," whose character and progress are set forth in the parables recorded in Matt. 13.

The children of all who thus profess the true religion are members of the visible church along with their parents. Children are included in every covenant God ever made with man. They go along with their parents (Gen. 9:9-17; 12:1-3; 17:7; Ex. 20:5; Deut. 29:10-13). Peter, on the day of Pentecost, at the beginning of the New Testament dispensation, announces the same great principle. "The promise [just as to Abraham and his seed the promises were made] is unto you, and to your children" (Acts 2:38, 39). The children of believing parents are "holy", i.e., are "saints", a title which designates the members of the Christian church (1 Cor. 7:14). (See BAPTISM.)

The church invisible "consists of the whole number of the elect that have been, are, or shall be gathered into one under Christ, the head thereof." This is a pure society, the church in which Christ dwells. It is the body of Christ. it is called "invisible" because the greater part of those who constitute it are already in heaven or are yet unborn, and also because its members still on earth cannot certainly be distinguished. The qualifications of membership in it are internal and are hidden. It is unseen except by Him who "searches the heart." "The Lord knoweth them that are his" (2 Tim. 2:19).

The church to which the attributes, prerogatives, and promises appertaining to Christ's kingdom belong, is a spiritual body consisting of all true believers, i.e., the church invisible.

(1.) Its unity. God has ever had only one church on earth. We sometimes speak of the Old Testament Church and of the New Testament church, but they are one and the same. The Old Testament church was not to be changed but enlarged (Isa. 49:13-23; 60:1-14). When the Jews are at length restored, they will not enter a new church, but will be grafted again into "their own olive tree" (Rom. 11:18-24; comp. Eph. 2:11-22). The apostles did not set up a new organization. Under their ministry disciples were "added" to the "church" already existing (Acts 2:47).

(2.) Its universality. It is the "catholic" church; not confined to any particular country or outward organization, but comprehending all believers throughout the whole world.

(3.) Its perpetuity. It will continue through all ages to the end of the world. It can never be destroyed. It is an "everlasting kindgdom."

Churl - in Isa. 32:5 (R.V. marg., "crafty"), means a deceiver. In 1 Sam. 25:3, the word churlish denotes a man that is coarse and ill-natured, or, as the word literally means, "hard." The same Greek word as used by the LXX. here is found in Matt. 25:24, and there is rendered "hard."

Chushan-rishathaim - Cush of double wickedness, or governor of two presidencies, the king of Mesopotamia who oppressed Israel in the generation immediately following Joshua (Judg. 3:8). We learn from the Tell-el-Amarna tablets that Palestine had been invaded by the forces of Aram-naharaim (A.V., "Mesopotamia") more than once, long before the Exodus, and that at the time they were written the king of Aram-naharaim was still intriguing in Canaan. It is mentioned among the countries which took part in the attack upon Egypt in the reign of Rameses III. (of the Twentieth Dynasty), but as its king is not one of the princes stated to have been conquered by the Pharaoh, it would seem that he did not actually enter Egypt. As the reign of Rameses III. corresponds with the Israelitish occupation of Canaan, it is probable that the Egyptian monuments refer to the oppression of the Israelites by Chushan-rishathaim. Canaan was still regarded as a province of Egypt, so that, in attacking it Chushan-rishathaim would have been considered to be attacking Egypt.

Cilicia - a maritime province in the south-east of Asia Minor. Tarsus, the birth-place of Paul, was one of its chief towns, and the seat of a celebrated school of philosophy. Its luxurious climate attracted to it many Greek residents after its incorporation with the Macedonian empire. It was formed into a Roman province, B.C. 67. The Jews of Cilicia had a synagogue at Jerusalem (Acts 6:9). Paul visited it soon after his conversion (Gal. 1:21; Acts 9:30), and again, on his second missionary journey (15:41), "he went through Syria and Cilicia, confirming the churches." It was famous for its goat's-hair cloth, called cilicium. Paul learned in his youth the trade of making tents of this cloth.

Cinnamon - Heb. kinamon, the Cinnamomum zeylanicum of botanists, a tree of the Laurel family, which grows only in India on the Malabar coast, in Ceylon, and China. There is no trace of it in Egypt, and it was unknown in Syria. The inner rind when dried and rolled into cylinders forms the cinnamon of commerce. The fruit and coarser pieces of bark when boiled yield a fragrant oil. It was one of the principal ingredients in the holy anointing oil (Ex. 30:23). It is mentioned elsewhere only in Prov. 7:17; Cant. 4:14; Rev. 18:13. The mention of it indicates a very early and extensive commerce carried on between Palestine and the East.

Cinnereth - a harp, one of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali (Josh. 19:35; comp. Deut. 3:17). It also denotes, apparently, a district which may have taken its name from the adjacent city or lake of Gennesaret, anciently called "the sea of Chinnereth" (q.v.), and was probably that enclosed district north of Tiberias afterwards called "the plain of Gennesaret." Called Chinneroth (R.V., Chinnereth) Josh. 11:2. The phrase "all Cinneroth, with all the land of Naphtali" in 1 Kings 15:20 is parallel to "the store-houses of the cities of Naphtali" (R.V. marg.) in 2 Chr. 16:4.

Circuit - the apparent diurnal revolution of the sun round the earth (Ps. 19:6), and the changes of the wind (Eccl. 1:6). In Job 22:14, "in the circuit of heaven" (R.V. marg., "on the vault of heaven") means the "arch of heaven," which seems to be bent over our heads.

Circumcision - cutting around. This rite, practised before, as some think, by divers races, was appointed by God to be the special badge of his chosen people, an abiding sign of their consecration to him. It was established as a national ordinance (Gen. 17:10, 11). In compliance with the divine command, Abraham, though ninety-nine years of age, was circumcised on the same day with Ishmael, who was thirteen years old (17:24-27). Slaves, whether home-born or purchased, were circumcised (17:12, 13); and all foreigners must have their males circumcised before they could enjoy the privileges of Jewish citizenship (Ex. 12:48). During the journey through the wilderness, the practice of circumcision fell into disuse, but was resumed by the command of Joshua before they entered the Promised Land (Josh. 5:2-9). It was observed always afterwards among the tribes of israel, although it is not expressly mentioned from the time of the settlement in Canaan till the time of Christ, about 1,450 years. The Jews prided themselves in the possession of this covenant distinction (Judg. 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sam. 14:6; 17:26; 2 Sam. 1:20; Ezek. 31:18).

As a rite of the church it ceased when the New Testament times began (Gal. 6:15; Col. 3:11). Some Jewish Christians sought to impose it, however, on the Gentile converts; but this the apostles resolutely resisted (Acts 15:1; Gal. 6:12). Our Lord was circumcised, for it "became him to fulfil all righteousness," as of the seed of Abraham, according to the flesh; and Paul "took and circumcised" Timothy (Acts 16:3), to avoid giving offence to the Jews. It would render Timothy's labours more acceptable to the Jews. But Paul would by no means consent to the demand that Titus should be circumcised (Gal. 2:3-5). The great point for which he contended was the free admission of uncircumcised Gentiles into the church. He contended successfully in behalf of Titus, even in Jerusalem.

In the Old Testament a spiritual idea is attached to circumcision. It was the symbol of purity (Isa. 52:1). We read of uncircumcised lips (Ex. 6:12, 30), ears (Jer. 6:10), hearts (Lev. 26:41). The fruit of a tree that is unclean is spoken of as uncircumcised (Lev. 19:23).

It was a sign and seal of the covenant of grace as well as of the national covenant between God and the Hebrews. (1.) It sealed the promises made to Abraham, which related to the commonwealth of Israel, national promises. (2.) But the promises made to Abraham included the promise of redemption (Gal. 3:14), a promise which has come upon us. The covenant with Abraham was a dispensation or a specific form of the covenant of grace, and circumcision was a sign and seal of that covenant. It had a spiritual meaning. It signified purification of the heart, inward circumcision effected by the Spirit (Deut. 10:16; 30:6; Ezek. 44:7; Acts 7:51; Rom. 2:28; Col. 2:11). Circumcision as a symbol shadowing forth sanctification by the Holy Spirit has now given way to the symbol of baptism (q.v.). But the truth embodied in both ordinances is ever the same, the removal of sin, the sanctifying effects of grace in the heart.

Under the Jewish dispensation, church and state were identical. No one could be a member of the one without also being a member of the other. Circumcision was a sign and seal of membership in both. Every circumcised person bore thereby evidence that he was one of the chosen people, a member of the church of God as it then existed, and consequently also a member of the Jewish commonwealth.

Cistern - the rendering of a Hebrew word bor, which means a receptacle for water conveyed to it; distinguished from beer, which denotes a place where water rises on the spot (Jer. 2:13; Prov. 5:15; Isa. 36:16), a fountain. Cisterns are frequently mentioned in Scripture. The scarcity of springs in Palestine made it necessary to collect rain-water in reservoirs and cisterns (Num. 21:22). (See WELL.)

Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons (Jer. 38:6; Lam. 3:53; Ps. 40:2; 69:15). The "pit" into which Joseph was cast (Gen. 37:24) was a beer or dry well. There are numerous remains of ancient cisterns in all parts of Palestine.

Citizenship - the rights and privileges of a citizen in distinction from a foreigner (Luke 15:15; 19:14; Acts 21:39). Under the Mosaic law non-Israelites, with the exception of the Moabites and the Ammonites and others mentioned in Deut. 23:1-3, were admitted to the general privileges of citizenship among the Jews (Ex. 12:19; Lev. 24:22; Num. 15:15; 35:15; Deut. 10:18; 14:29; 16:10, 14).

The right of citizenship under the Roman government was granted by the emperor to individuals, and sometimes to provinces, as a favour or as a recompense for services rendered to the state, or for a sum of money (Acts 22:28). This "freedom" secured privileges equal to those enjoyed by natives of Rome. Among the most notable of these was the provision that a man could not be bound or imprisoned without a formal trial (Acts 22:25, 26), or scourged (16:37). All Roman citizens had the right of appeal to Caesar (25:11).

City - The earliest mention of city-building is that of Enoch, which was built by Cain (Gen. 4:17). After the confusion of tongues, the descendants of Nimrod founded several cities (10:10-12). Next, we have a record of the cities of the Canaanites, Sidon, Gaza, Sodom, etc. (10:12, 19; 11:3, 9; 36:31-39). The earliest description of a city is that of Sodom (19:1-22). Damascus is said to be the oldest existing city in the world. Before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt (Num. 13:22). The Israelites in Egypt were employed in building the "treasure cities" of Pithom and Raamses (Ex. 1:11); but it does not seem that they had any cities of their own in Goshen (Gen. 46:34; 47:1-11). In the kingdom of Og in Bashan there were sixty "great cities with walls," and twenty-three cities in Gilead partly rebuilt by the tribes on the east of Jordan (Num. 21:21, 32, 33, 35; 32:1-3, 34-42; Deut. 3:4, 5, 14; 1 Kings 4:13). On the west of Jordan were thirty-one "royal cities" (Josh. 12), besides many others spoken of in the history of Israel.

A fenced city was a city surrounded by fortifications and high walls, with watch-towers upon them (2 Chr. 11:11; Deut. 3:5). There was also within the city generally a tower to which the citizens might flee when danger threatened them (Judg. 9:46-52).

A city with suburbs was a city surrounded with open pasture-grounds, such as the forty-eight cities which were given to the Levites (Num. 35:2-7). There were six cities of refuge, three on each side of Jordan, namely, Kadesh, Shechem, Hebron, on the west of Jordan; and on the east, Bezer, Ramoth-gilead, and Golan. The cities on each side of the river were nearly opposite each other. The regulations concerning these cities are given in Num. 35:9-34; Deut. 19:1-13; Ex. 21:12-14.

When David reduced the fortress of the Jebusites which stood on Mount Zion, he built on the site of it a palace and a city, which he called by his own name (1 Chr. 11:5), the city of David. Bethlehem is also so called as being David's native town (Luke 2:4).

Jerusalem is called the Holy City, the holiness of the temple being regarded as extending in some measure over the whole city (Neh. 11:1).

Pithom and Raamses, built by the Israelites as "treasure cities," were not places where royal treasures were kept, but were fortified towns where merchants might store their goods and transact their business in safety, or cities in which munitions of war were stored. (See PITHOM.)

Clauda - a small island off the southwest coast of Crete, passed by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:16). It is about 7 miles long and 3 broad. It is now called Gozzo (R.V., "Cauda").

Claudia - a female Christian mentioned in 2 Tim. 4:21. It is a conjecture having some probability that she was a British maiden, the daughter of king Cogidunus, who was an ally of Rome, and assumed the name of the emperor, his patron, Tiberius Claudius, and that she was the wife of Pudens.

Claudius - lame. (1.) The fourth Roman emperor. He succeeded Caligula (A.D. 41). Though in general he treated the Jews, especially those in Asia and Egypt, with great indulgence, yet about the middle of his reign (A.D. 49) he banished them all from Rome (Acts 18:2). In this edict the Christians were included, as being, as was supposed, a sect of Jews. The Jews, however soon again returned to Rome.

During the reign of this emperor, several persecutions of the Christians by the Jews took place in the dominions of Herod Agrippa, in one of which the apostle James was "killed" (12:2). He died A.D. 54.

(2.) Claudius Lysias, a Greek who, having obtained by purchase the privilege of Roman citizenship, took the name of Claudius (Acts 21:31-40; 22:28; 23:26).

Clay - This word is used of sediment found in pits or in streets (Isa. 57:20; Jer. 38:60), of dust mixed with spittle (John 9:6), and of potter's clay (Isa. 41:25; Nah. 3:14; Jer. 18:1-6; Rom. 9:21). Clay was used for sealing (Job 38:14; Jer. 32:14). Our Lord's tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt. 27:66). The practice of sealing doors with clay is still common in the East. Clay was also in primitive times used for mortar (Gen. 11:3). The "clay ground" in which the large vessels of the temple were cast (1 Kings 7:46; 2 Chr. 4:17) was a compact loam fitted for the purpose. The expression literally rendered is, "in the thickness of the ground,", meaning, "in stiff ground" or in clay.

Clean - The various forms of uncleanness according to the Mosaic law are enumerated in Lev. 11-15; Num. 19. The division of animals into clean and unclean was probably founded on the practice of sacrifice. It existed before the Flood (Gen. 7:2). The regulations regarding such animals are recorded in Lev. 11 and Deut. 14:1-21.

The Hebrews were prohibited from using as food certain animal substances, such as (1) blood; (2) the fat covering the intestines, termed the caul; (3) the fat on the intestines, called the mesentery; (4) the fat of the kidneys; and (5) the fat tail of certain sheep (Ex. 29:13, 22; Lev. 3:4-9; 9:19; 17:10; 19:26).

The chief design of these regulations seems to have been to establish a system of regimen which would distinguish the Jews from all other nations. Regarding the design and the abolition of these regulations the reader will find all the details in Lev. 20:24-26; Acts 10:9-16; 11:1-10; Heb. 9:9-14.

Clement - mild, a Christian of Philippi, Paul's "fellow-labourer," whose name he mentions as "in the book of life" (Phil. 4:3). It was an opinion of ancient writers that he was the Clement of Rome whose name is well known in church history, and that he was the author of an Epistle to the Corinthians, the only known manuscript of which is appended to the Alexandrian Codex, now in the British Museum. It is of some historical interest, and has given rise to much discussion among critics. It makes distinct reference to Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians.

Cleopas - (abbreviation of Cleopatros), one of the two disciples with whom Jesus conversed on the way to Emmaus on the day of the resurrection (Luke 24:18). We know nothing definitely regarding him. It is not certain that he was the Clopas of John 19:25, or the Alphaeus of Matt. 10:3, although he may have been so.

Cleophas - (in the spelling of this word h is inserted by mistake from Latin MSS.), rather Cleopas, which is the Greek form of the word, while Clopas is the Aramaic form. In John 19:25 the Authorized Version reads, "Mary, the wife of Clopas." The word "wife" is conjecturally inserted here. If "wife" is rightly inserted, then Mary was the mother of James the Less, and Clopas is the same as Alphaeus (Matt. 10:3; 27:56).

Cloak - an upper garment, "an exterior tunic, wide and long, reaching to the ankles, but without sleeves" (Isa. 59:17). The word so rendered is elsewhere rendered "robe" or "mantle." It was worn by the high priest under the ephod (Ex. 28:31), by kings and others of rank (1 Sam. 15:27; Job 1:20; 2:12), and by women (2 Sam. 13:18).

The word translated "cloke", i.e., outer garment, in Matt. 5:40 is in its plural form used of garments in general (Matt. 17:2; 26:65). The cloak mentioned here and in Luke 6:29 was the Greek himation, Latin pallium, and consisted of a large square piece of wollen cloth fastened round the shoulders, like the abba of the Arabs. This could be taken by a creditor (Ex. 22:26,27), but the coat or tunic (Gr. chiton) mentioned in Matt. 5:40 could not.

The cloak which Paul "left at Troas" (2 Tim. 4:13) was the Roman paenula, a thick upper garment used chiefly in travelling as a protection from the weather. Some, however, have supposed that what Paul meant was a travelling-bag. In the Syriac version the word used means a bookcase. (See Dress.)

Closet - as used in the New Testament, signifies properly a storehouse (Luke 12: 24), and hence a place of privacy and retirement (Matt. 6:6; Luke 12:3).

Cloud - The Hebrew so rendered means "a covering," because clouds cover the sky. The word is used as a symbol of the Divine presence, as indicating the splendour of that glory which it conceals (Ex. 16:10; 33:9; Num. 11:25; 12:5; Job 22:14; Ps. 18:11). A "cloud without rain" is a proverbial saying, denoting a man who does not keep his promise (Prov. 16:15; Isa. 18:4; 25:5; Jude 1:12). A cloud is the figure of that which is transitory (Job 30:15; Hos. 6:4). A bright cloud is the symbolical seat of the Divine presence (Ex.29:42, 43; 1 Kings 8:10; 2 Chr. 5:14; Ezek. 43:4), and was called the Shechinah (q.v.). Jehovah came down upon Sinai in a cloud (Ex. 19:9); and the cloud filled the court around the tabernacle in the wilderness so that Moses could not enter it (Ex. 40:34, 35). At the dedication of the temple also the cloud "filled the house of the Lord" (1 Kings 8:10). Thus in like manner when Christ comes the second time he is described as coming "in the clouds" (Matt. 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9, 11). False teachers are likened unto clouds carried about with a tempest (2 Pet. 2:17). The infirmities of old age, which come one after another, are compared by Solomon to "clouds returning after the rain" (Eccl. 12:2). The blotting out of sins is like the sudden disappearance of threatening clouds from the sky (Isa. 44:22).

Cloud, the pillar of, was the glory-cloud which indicated God's presence leading the ransomed people through the wilderness (Ex. 13:22; 33:9, 10). This pillar preceded the people as they marched, resting on the ark (Ex. 13:21; 40:36). By night it became a pillar of fire (Num. 9:17-23).

Cnidus - a town and harbour on the extreme south-west of the peninsula of Doris in Asia Minor. Paul sailed past it on his voyage to Rome after leaving Myra (Acts 27:7).

Coal - It is by no means certain that the Hebrews were acquainted with mineral coal, although it is found in Syria. Their common fuel was dried dung of animals and wood charcoal. Two different words are found in Hebrew to denote coal, both occurring in Prov. 26:21, "As coal [Heb. peham; i.e., "black coal"] is to burning coal [Heb. gehalim]." The latter of these words is used in Job 41:21; Prov. 6:28; Isa. 44:19. The words "live coal" in Isa. 6:6 are more correctly "glowing stone." In Lam. 4:8 the expression "blacker than a coal" is literally rendered in the margin of the Revised Version "darker than blackness." "Coals of fire" (2 Sam. 22:9, 13; Ps. 18:8, 12, 13, etc.) is an expression used metaphorically for lightnings proceeding from God. A false tongue is compared to "coals of juniper" (Ps. 120:4; James 3:6). "Heaping coals of fire on the head" symbolizes overcoming evil with good. The words of Paul (Rom. 12:20) are equivalent to saying, "By charity and kindness thou shalt soften down his enmity as surely as heaping coals on the fire fuses the metal in the crucible."

Coat - the tunic worn like the shirt next the skin (Lev. 16:4; Cant. 5:3; 2 Sam. 15:32; Ex. 28:4; 29:5). The "coats of skins" prepared by God for Adam and Eve were probably nothing more than aprons (Gen. 3:21). This tunic was sometimes woven entire without a seam (John 19:23); it was also sometimes of "many colours" (Gen. 37:3; R.V. marg., "a long garment with sleeves"). The "fisher's coat" of John 21:7 was obviously an outer garment or cloak, as was also the "coat" made by Hannah for Samuel (1 Sam. 2:19). (See DRESS.)

Coat of mail - the rendering of a Hebrew word meaning "glittering" (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). The same word in the plural form is translated "habergeons" in 2 Chr. 26:14 and Neh. 4:16. The "harness" (1 Kings 22:34), "breastplate" (Isa. 59:17), and "brigandine" (Jer. 46:4), were probably also corselets or coats of mail. (See ARMOUR.)

Cockatrice - the mediaeval name (a corruption of "crocodile") of a fabulous serpent supposed to be produced from a cock's egg. It is generally supposed to denote the cerastes, or "horned viper," a very poisonous serpent about a foot long. Others think it to be the yellow viper (Daboia xanthina), one of the most dangerous vipers, from its size and its nocturnal habits (Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 8:17; in all which the Revised Version renders the Hebrew tziph'oni by "basilisk"). In Prov. 23:32 the Hebrew tzeph'a is rendered both in the Authorized Version and the Revised Version by "adder;" margin of Revised Version "basilisk," and of Authorized Version "cockatrice."

Cock-crowing - In our Lord's time the Jews had adopted the Greek and Roman division of the night into four watches, each consisting of three hours, the first beginning at six o'clock in the evening (Luke 12:38; Matt. 14:25; Mark 6:48). But the ancient division, known as the first and second cock-crowing, was still retained. The cock usually crows several times soon after midnight (this is the first crowing), and again at the dawn of day (and this is the second crowing). Mark mentions (14:30) the two cock-crowings. Matthew (26:34) alludes to that only which was emphatically the cock-crowing, viz, the second.

Cockle - occurs only in Job 31:40 (marg., "noisome weeds"), where it is the rendering of a Hebrew word (b'oshah) which means "offensive," "having a bad smell," referring to some weed perhaps which has an unpleasant odour. Or it may be regarded as simply any noisome weed, such as the "tares" or darnel of Matt. 13:30. In Isa. 5:2, 4 the plural form is rendered "wild grapes."

Coele-Syria - hollow Syria, the name (not found in Scripture) given by the Greeks to the extensive valley, about 100 miles long, between the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon range of mountains.

Coffer - the receptacle or small box placed beside the ark by the Philistines, in which they deposited the golden mice and the emerods as their trespass-offering (1 Sam. 6:8, 11, 15).

Coffin - used in Gen. 50:26 with reference to the burial of Joseph. Here, it means a mummy-chest. The same Hebrew word is rendered "chest" in 2 Kings 12:9, 10.

Cogitations - (or "thoughts," as the Chaldee word in Dan. 7:28 literally means), earnest meditation.

Coin - Before the Exile the Jews had no regularly stamped money. They made use of uncoined shekels or talents of silver, which they weighed out (Gen. 23:16; Ex. 38:24; 2 Sam. 18:12). Probably the silver ingots used in the time of Abraham may have been of a fixed weight, which was in some way indicated on them. The "pieces of silver" paid by Abimelech to Abraham (Gen. 20:16), and those also for which Joseph was sold (37:28), were proably in the form of rings. The shekel was the common standard of weight and value among the Hebrews down to the time of the Captivity. Only once is a shekel of gold mentioned (1 Chr. 21:25). The "six thousand of gold" mentioned in the transaction between Naaman and Gehazi (2 Kings 5:5) were probably so many shekels of gold. The "piece of money" mentioned in Job 42:11; Gen. 33:19 (marg., "lambs") was the Hebrew kesitah, probably an uncoined piece of silver of a certain weight in the form of a sheep or lamb, or perhaps having on it such an impression. The same Hebrew word is used in Josh. 24:32, which is rendered by Wickliffe "an hundred yonge scheep."

Collar - (Heb. peh), means in Job 30:18 the mouth or opening of the garment that closes round the neck in the same way as a tunic (Ex. 39:23). The "collars" (Heb. netiphoth) among the spoils of the Midianites (Judg. 8:26; R.V., "pendants") were ear-drops. The same Hebrew word is rendered "chains" in Isa. 3:19.

Collection - The Christians in Palestine, from various causes, suffered from poverty. Paul awakened an interest in them among the Gentile churches, and made pecuniary collections in their behalf (Acts 24:17; Rom. 15:25, 26; 1 Cor. 16:1-3; 2 Cor. 8:9; Gal. 2:10).

College - Heb. mishneh (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chr. 34:22), rendered in Revised Version "second quarter", the residence of the prophetess Huldah. The Authorized Version followed the Jewish commentators, who, following the Targum, gave the Hebrew word its post-Biblical sense, as if it meant a place of instruction. It properly means the "second," and may therefore denote the lower city (Acra), which was built after the portion of the city on Mount Zion, and was enclosed by a second wall.

Colony - The city of Philippi was a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), i.e., a military settlement of Roman soldiers and citizens, planted there to keep in subjection a newly-conquered district. A colony was Rome in miniature, under Roman municipal law, but governed by military officers (praetors and lictors), not by proconsuls. It had an independent internal government, the jus Italicum; i.e., the privileges of Italian citizens.

Colossae - or Colosse, a city of Phrygia, on the Lycus, which is a tributary of the Maeander. It was about 12 miles above Laodicea, and near the great road from Ephesus to the Euphrates, and was consequently of some mercantile importance. It does not appear that Paul had visited this city when he wrote his letter to the church there (Col. 1:2). He expresses in his letter to Philemon (ver. 1:22) his hope to visit it on being delivered from his imprisonment. From Col. 1:7; 4:12 it has been concluded that Epaphras was the founder of the Colossian church. This town afterwards fell into decay, and the modern town of Chonas or Chonum occupies a site near its ruins.

Colossians, Epistle to the - was written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there (Acts 28:16, 30), probably in the spring of A.D. 57, or, as some think, 62, and soon after he had written his Epistle to the Ephesians. Like some of his other epistles (e.g., those to Corinth), this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had somehow been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there (Col. 1:4-8). Its object was to counteract false teaching. A large part of it is directed against certain speculatists who attempted to combine the doctrines of Oriental mysticism and asceticism with Christianity, thereby promising the disciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of spirits. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in Christ Jesus they had all things. He sets forth the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the "new moon" and "sabbath days" (2:16) shows also that there were here Judaizing teachers who sought to draw away the disciples from the simplicity of the gospel.

Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists of two parts, a doctrinal and a practical.

(1.) The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. His main theme is developed in chapter 2. He warns them against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fulness of the Godhead, and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more?

(2.) The practical part of the epistle (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man (3:5-14). Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. Tychicus was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the Ephesians and to Philemon, and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange this letter with that he had sent to the neighbouring church of Laodicea. He then closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation. There is a remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians (q.v.). The genuineness of this epistle has not been called in question.

Colour - The subject of colours holds an important place in the Scriptures.

White occurs as the translation of various Hebrew words. It is applied to milk (Gen. 49:12), manna (Ex. 16:31), snow (Isa. 1:18), horses (Zech. 1:8), raiment (Eccl. 9:8). Another Hebrew word so rendered is applied to marble (Esther 1:6), and a cognate word to the lily (Cant. 2:16). A different term, meaning "dazzling," is applied to the countenance (Cant. 5:10).

This colour was an emblem of purity and innocence (Mark 16:5; John 20:12; Rev. 19:8, 14), of joy (Eccl. 9:8), and also of victory (Zech. 6:3; Rev. 6:2). The hangings of the tabernacle court (Ex. 27:9; 38:9), the coats, mitres, bonnets, and breeches of the priests (Ex. 39:27,28), and the dress of the high priest on the day of Atonement (Lev. 16:4,32), were white.

Black, applied to the hair (Lev. 13:31; Cant. 5:11), the complexion (Cant. 1:5), and to horses (Zech. 6:2,6). The word rendered "brown" in Gen. 30:32 (R.V., "black") means properly "scorched", i.e., the colour produced by the influence of the sun's rays. "Black" in Job 30:30 means dirty, blackened by sorrow and disease. The word is applied to a mourner's robes (Jer. 8:21; 14:2), to a clouded sky (1 Kings 18:45), to night (Micah 3:6; Jer. 4:28), and to a brook rendered turbid by melted snow (Job 6:16). It is used as symbolical of evil in Zech. 6:2, 6 and Rev. 6:5. It was the emblem of mourning, affliction, calamity (Jer. 14:2; Lam. 4:8; 5:10).

Red, applied to blood (2 Kings 3;22), a heifer (Num. 19:2), pottage of lentils (Gen. 25:30), a horse (Zech. 1:8), wine (Prov. 23:31), the complexion (Gen. 25:25; Cant. 5:10). This colour is symbolical of bloodshed (Zech. 6:2; Rev. 6:4; 12:3).

Purple, a colour obtained from the secretion of a species of shell-fish (the Murex trunculus) which was found in the Mediterranean, and particularly on the coasts of Phoenicia and Asia Minor. The colouring matter in each separate shell-fish amounted to only a single drop, and hence the great value of this dye. Robes of this colour were worn by kings (Judg. 8:26) and high officers (Esther 8:15). They were also worn by the wealthy and luxurious (Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 27:7; Luke 16:19; Rev. 17:4). With this colour was associated the idea of royalty and majesty (Judg. 8:26; Cant. 3:10; 7:5; Dan. 5:7, 16,29).

Blue. This colour was also procured from a species of shell-fish, the chelzon of the Hebrews, and the Helix ianthina of modern naturalists. The tint was emblematic of the sky, the deep dark hue of the Eastern sky. This colour was used in the same way as purple. The ribbon and fringe of the Hebrew dress were of this colour (Num. 15:38). The loops of the curtains (Ex. 26:4), the lace of the high priest's breastplate, the robe of the ephod, and the lace on his mitre, were blue (Ex. 28:28, 31, 37).

Scarlet, or Crimson. In Isa. 1:18 a Hebrew word is used which denotes the worm or grub whence this dye was procured. In Gen. 38:28,30, the word so rendered means "to shine," and expresses the brilliancy of the colour. The small parasitic insects from which this dye was obtained somewhat resembled the cochineal which is found in Eastern countries. It is called by naturalists Coccus ilics. The dye was procured from the female grub alone. The only natural object to which this colour is applied in Scripture is the lips, which are likened to a scarlet thread (Cant. 4:3). Scarlet robes were worn by the rich and luxurious (2 Sam. 1:24; Prov. 31:21; Jer. 4:30. Rev. 17:4). It was also the hue of the warrior's dress (Nah. 2:3; Isa. 9:5). The Phoenicians excelled in the art of dyeing this colour (2 Chr. 2:7).

These four colours--white, purple, blue, and scarlet--were used in the textures of the tabernacle curtains (Ex. 26:1, 31, 36), and also in the high priest's ephod, girdle, and breastplate (Ex. 28:5, 6, 8, 15). Scarlet thread is mentioned in connection with the rites of cleansing the leper (Lev. 14:4, 6, 51) and of burning the red heifer (Num. 19:6). It was a crimson thread that Rahab was to bind on her window as a sign that she was to be saved alive (Josh. 2:18; 6:25) when the city of Jericho was taken.

Vermilion, the red sulphuret of mercury, or cinnabar; a colour used for drawing the figures of idols on the walls of temples (Ezek. 23:14), or for decorating the walls and beams of houses (Jer. 22:14).

Comforter - the designation of the Holy Ghost (John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7; R.V. marg., "or Advocate, or Helper; Gr. paracletos"). The same Greek word thus rendered is translated "Advocate" in 1 John 2:1 as applicable to Christ. It means properly "one who is summoned to the side of another" to help him in a court of justice by defending him, "one who is summoned to plead a cause." "Advocate" is the proper rendering of the word in every case where it occurs.

It is worthy of notice that although Paul nowhere uses the word paracletos, he yet presents the idea it embodies when he speaks of the "intercession" both of Christ and the Spirit (Rom. 8:27, 34).

Coming of Christ - (1) with reference to his first advent "in the fulness of the time" (1 John 5:20; 2 John 1:7), or (2) with reference to his coming again the second time at the last day (Acts 1:11; 3:20, 21; 1 Thess. 4:15; 2 Tim. 4:1; Heb. 9:28).

The expression is used metaphorically of the introduction of the gospel into any place (John 15:22; Eph. 2:17), the visible establishment of his kingdom in the world (Matt. 16:28), the conferring on his people of the peculiar tokens of his love (John 14:18, 23, 28), and his executing judgment on the wicked (2 Thess. 2:8).

Commandments, the Ten - (Ex. 34:28; Deut. 10:4, marg. "ten words") i.e., the Decalogue (q.v.), is a summary of the immutable moral law. These commandments were first given in their written form to the people of Israel when they were encamped at Sinai, about fifty days after they came out of Egypt (Ex. 19:10-25). They were written by the finger of God on two tables of stone. The first tables were broken by Moses when he brought them down from the mount (32:19), being thrown by him on the ground. At the command of God he took up into the mount two other tables, and God wrote on them "the words that were on the first tables" (34:1). These tables were afterwards placed in the ark of the covenant (Deut. 10:5; 1 Kings 8:9). Their subsequent history is unknown. They are as a whole called "the covenant" (Deut. 4:13), and "the tables of the covenant" (9:9, 11; Heb. 9:4), and "the testimony."

They are obviously "ten" in number, but their division is not fixed, hence different methods of numbering them have been adopted. The Jews make the "Preface" one of the commandments, and then combine the first and second. The Roman Catholics and Lutherans combine the first and second and divide the tenth into two. The Jews and Josephus divide them equally. The Lutherans and Roman Catholics refer three commandments to the first table and seven to the second. The Greek and Reformed Churches refer four to the first and six to the second table. The Samaritans add to the second that Gerizim is the mount of worship. (See LAW.)

Communion - fellowship with God (Gen. 18:17-33; Ex. 33:9-11; Num. 12:7, 8), between Christ and his people (John 14:23), by the Spirit (2 Cor. 13:14; Phil. 2:1), of believers with one another (Eph. 4:1-6). The Lord's Supper is so called (1 Cor. 10:16, 17), because in it there is fellowship between Christ and his disciples, and of the disciples with one another.

Conaniah - whom Jehovah hath set, a Levite placed over the tithes brought into the temple (2 Chr. 35:9).

Concision - (Gr. katatome; i.e., "mutilation"), a term used by Paul contemptuously of those who were zealots for circumcision (Phil. 3:2). Instead of the warning, "Beware of the circumcision" (peritome) i.e., of the party who pressed on Gentile converts the necessity of still observing that ordinance, he says, "Beware of the concision;" as much as to say, "This circumcision which they vaunt of is in Christ only as the gashings and mutilations of idolatrous heathen."

Concubine - in the Bible denotes a female conjugally united to a man, but in a relation inferior to that of a wife. Among the early Jews, from various causes, the difference between a wife and a concubine was less marked than it would be amongst us. The concubine was a wife of secondary rank. There are various laws recorded providing for their protection (Ex. 21:7; Deut. 21:10-14), and setting limits to the relation they sustained to the household to which they belonged (Gen. 21:14; 25:6). They had no authority in the family, nor could they share in the household government.

The immediate cause of concubinage might be gathered from the conjugal histories of Abraham and Jacob (Gen. 16;30). But in process of time the custom of concubinage degenerated, and laws were made to restrain and regulate it (Ex. 21:7-9).

Christianity has restored the sacred institution of marriage to its original character, and concubinage is ranked with the sins of fornication and adultery (Matt. 19:5-9; 1 Cor. 7:2).

Concupiscence - desire, Rom. 7:8 (R.V., "coveting"); Col. 3:5 (R.V., "desire"). The "lust of concupiscence" (1 Thess. 4:5; R.V., "passion of lust") denotes evil desire, indwelling sin.

Conduit - a water-course or channel (Job 38:25). The "conduit of the upper pool" (Isa. 7:3) was formed by Hezekiah for the purpose of conveying the waters from the upper pool in the valley of Gihon to the west side of the city of David (2 Kings 18:17; 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:30). In carrying out this work he stopped "the waters of the fountains which were without the city" i.e., "the upper water-course of Gihon", and conveyed it down from the west through a canal into the city, so that in case of a siege the inhabitants of the city might have a supply of water, which would thus be withdrawn from the enemy. (See SILOAM.)

There are also the remains of a conduit which conducted water from the so-called "Pools of Solomon," beyond Bethlehem, into the city. Water is still conveyed into the city from the fountains which supplied these pools by a channel which crosses the valley of Hinnom.

Coney - (Heb. shaphan; i.e., "the hider"), an animal which inhabits the mountain gorges and the rocky districts of Arabia Petraea and the Holy Land. "The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks" (Prov. 30:26; Ps. 104:18). They are gregarious, and "exceeding wise" (Prov. 30:24), and are described as chewing the cud (Lev. 11:5; Deut. 14:7).

The animal intended by this name is known among naturalists as the Hyrax Syriacus. It is neither a ruminant nor a rodent, but is regarded as akin to the rhinoceros. When it is said to "chew the cud," the Hebrew word so used does not necessarily imply the possession of a ruminant stomach. "The lawgiver speaks according to appearances; and no one can watch the constant motion of the little creature's jaws, as it sits continually working its teeth, without recognizing the naturalness of the expression" (Tristram, Natural History of the Bible). It is about the size and color of a rabbit, though clumsier in structure, and without a tail. Its feet are not formed for digging, and therefore it has its home not in burrows but in the clefts of the rocks. "Coney" is an obsolete English word for "rabbit."

Confection - (Ex. 30:35, "ointment" in ver. 25; R.V., "perfume"). The Hebrew word so rendered is derived from a root meaning to compound oil and perfume.

Confectionaries - only in 1 Sam. 8:13, those who make confections, i.e., perfumers, who compound species and perfumes.

Confession - (1) An open profession of faith (Luke 12:8). (2.) An acknowledment of sins to God (Lev. 16:21; Ezra 9:5-15; Dan. 9:3-12), and to a neighbour whom we have wronged (James 5:16; Matt. 18:15).

Congregation - (Heb. kahal), the Hebrew people collectively as a holy community (Num. 15:15). Every circumcised Hebrew from twenty years old and upward was a member of the congregation. Strangers resident in the land, if circumcised, were, with certain exceptions (Ex. 12:19; Num. 9:14; Deut. 23:1-3), admitted to the privileges of citizenship, and spoken of as members of the congregation (Ex. 12:19; Num. 9:14; 15:15). The congregation were summonded together by the sound of two silver trumpets, and they met at the door of the tabernacle (Num. 10:3). These assemblies were convened for the purpose of engaging in solemn religious services (Ex. 12:27; Num. 25:6; Joel 2:15), or of receiving new commandments (Ex. 19:7, 8). The elders, who were summonded by the sound of one trumpet (Num. 10:4), represented on various occasions the whole congregation (Ex. 3:16; 12:21; 17:5; 24:1).

After the conquest of Canaan, the people were assembled only on occasions of the highest national importance (Judg. 20; 2 Chr. 30:5; 34:29; 1 Sam. 10:17; 2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Kings 12:20; 2 Kings 11:19; 21:24; 23:30). In subsequent times the congregation was represented by the Sanhedrim; and the name synagogue, applied in the Septuagint version exclusively to the congregation, came to be used to denote the places of worship established by the Jews. (See CHURCH.)

In Acts 13:43, where alone it occurs in the New Testament, it is the same word as that rendered "synagogue" (q.v.) in ver. 42, and is so rendered in ver. 43 in R.V.

Congregation, mount of the - (Isa. 14:13), has been supposed to refer to the place where God promised to meet with his people (Ex. 25:22; 29:42, 43) i.e., the mount of the Divine presence, Mount Zion. But here the king of Babylon must be taken as expressing himself according to his own heathen notions, and not according to those of the Jews. The "mount of the congregation" will therefore in this case mean the northern mountain, supposed by the Babylonians to be the meeting-place of their gods. In the Babylonian inscriptions mention is made of a mountain which is described as "the mighty mountain of Bel, whose head rivals heaven, whose root is the holy deep." This mountain was regarded in their mythology as the place where the gods had their seat.

Conscience - that faculty of the mind, or inborn sense of right and wrong, by which we judge of the moral character of human conduct. It is common to all men. Like all our other faculties, it has been perverted by the Fall (John 16:2; Acts 26:9; Rom. 2:15). It is spoken of as "defiled" (Titus 1:15), and "seared" (1 Tim. 4:2). A "conscience void of offence" is to be sought and cultivated (Acts 24:16; Rom. 9:1; 2 Cor. 1:12; 1 Tim. 1:5, 19; 1 Pet. 3:21).

Consecration - the devoting or setting apart of anything to the worship or service of God. The race of Abraham and the tribe of Levi were thus consecrated (Ex. 13:2, 12, 15; Num. 3:12). The Hebrews devoted their fields and cattle, and sometimes the spoils of war, to the Lord (Lev. 27:28, 29). According to the Mosaic law the first-born both of man and beast were consecrated to God.

In the New Testament, Christians are regarded as consecrated to the Lord (1 Pet. 2:9).

Consolation of Israel - a name for the Messiah in common use among the Jews, probably suggested by Isa. 12:1; 49:13. The Greek word thus rendered (Luke 2:25, paraklesis) is kindred to that translated "Comforter" in John 14:16, etc., parakletos.

Constellation - a cluster of stars, or stars which appear to be near each other in the heavens, and which astronomers have reduced to certain figures (as the "Great Bear," the "Bull," etc.) for the sake of classification and of memory. In Isa. 13:10, where this word only occurs, it is the rendering of the Hebrew kesil, i.e., "fool." This was the Hebrew name of the constellation Orion (Job 9:9; 38:31), a constellation which represented Nimrod, the symbol of folly and impiety. The word some interpret by "the giant" in this place, "some heaven-daring rebel who was chained to the sky for his impiety."

Contentment - a state of mind in which one's desires are confined to his lot whatever it may be (1 Tim. 6:6; 2 Cor. 9:8). It is opposed to envy (James 3:16), avarice (Heb. 13:5), ambition (Prov. 13:10), anxiety (Matt. 6:25, 34), and repining (1 Cor. 10:10). It arises from the inward disposition, and is the offspring of humility, and of an intelligent consideration of the rectitude and benignity of divine providence (Ps. 96:1, 2; 145), the greatness of the divine promises (2 Pet. 1:4), and our own unworthiness (Gen. 32:10); as well as from the view the gospel opens up to us of rest and peace hereafter (Rom. 5:2).

Conversation - generally the goings out and in of social intercourse (Eph. 2:3; 4:22; R.V., "manner of life"); one's deportment or course of life. This word is never used in Scripture in the sense of verbal communication from one to another (Ps. 50:23; Heb. 13:5). In Phil. 1:27 and 3:20, a different Greek word is used. It there means one's relations to a community as a citizen, i.e., citizenship.

Conversion - the turning of a sinner to God (Acts 15:3). In a general sense the heathen are said to be "converted" when they abandon heathenism and embrace the Christian faith; and in a more special sense men are converted when, by the influence of divine grace in their souls, their whole life is changed, old things pass away, and all things become new (Acts 26:18). Thus we speak of the conversion of the Philippian jailer (16:19-34), of Paul (9:1-22), of the Ethiopian treasurer (8:26-40), of Cornelius (10), of Lydia (16:13-15), and others. (See REGENERATION.)

Convocation - a meeting of a religious character as distinguished from congregation, which was more general, dealing with political and legal matters. Hence it is called an "holy convocation." Such convocations were the Sabbaths (Lev. 23:2, 3), the Passover (Ex. 12:16; Lev. 23:7, 8; Num. 28:25), Pentecost (Lev. 23:21), the feast of Trumpets (Lev. 23:24; Num. 29:1), the feast of Weeks (Num. 28:26), and the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:35, 36). The great fast, the annual day of atonement, was "the holy convocation" (Lev. 23:27; Num. 29:7).

Cook - a person employed to perform culinary service. In early times among the Hebrews cooking was performed by the mistress of the household (Gen. 18:2-6; Judg. 6:19), and the process was very expeditiously performed (Gen. 27:3, 4, 9, 10). Professional cooks were afterwards employed (1 Sam. 8:13; 9:23). Few animals, as a rule, were slaughtered (other than sacrifices), except for purposes of hospitality (Gen. 18:7; Luke 15:23). The paschal lamb was roasted over a fire (Ex. 12:8, 9; 2Chr. 35:13). Cooking by boiling was the usual method adopted (Lev. 8:31; Ex. 16:23). No cooking took place on the Sabbath day (Ex. 35:3).

Coos - (written Cos in the R.V.), a small island, one of the Sporades in the Aegean Sea, in the north-west of Rhodes, off the coast of Caria. Paul on his return from his third missionary journey, passed the night here after sailing from Miletus (Acts 21:1). It is now called Stanchio.

Copper - derived from the Greek kupros (the island of Cyprus), called "Cyprian brass," occurs only in the Authorized Version in Ezra 8:27. Elsewhere the Hebrew word (nehosheth) is improperly rendered "brass," and sometimes "steel" (2 Sam. 22:35; Jer. 15:12). The "bow of steel" (Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34) should have been "bow of copper" (or "brass," as in the R.V.). The vessels of "fine copper" of Ezra 8:27 were probably similar to those of "bright brass" mentioned in 1 Kings 7:45; Dan. 10:6.

Tubal-cain was the first artificer in brass and iron (Gen. 4:22). Hiram was noted as a worker in brass (1 Kings 7:14). Copper abounded in Palestine (Deut. 8:9; Isa. 60:17; 1 Chr. 22:3, 14). All sorts of vessels in the tabernacle and the temple were made of it (Lev. 6:28; Num. 16:39; 2 Chr. 4:16; Ezra 8:27); also weapons of war (1 Sam. 17:5, 6, 38; 2 Sam. 21:16). Iron is mentioned only four times (Gen. 4:22; Lev. 26:19; Num. 31:22; 35:16) in the first four books of Moses, while copper (rendered "brass") is mentioned forty times. (See BRASS.)

We find mention of Alexander (q.v.), a "coppersmith" of Ephesus (2 Tim. 4:14).

Cor - This Hebrew word, untranslated, denotes a round vessel used as a measure both for liquids and solids. It was equal to one homer, and contained ten ephahs in dry and ten baths in liquid measure (Ezek. 45:14). The Rabbins estimated the cor at forty-five gallons, while Josephus estimated it at about eighty-seven. In 1 Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2 Chr. 2:10; 27:5, the original word is rendered "measure."

Coral - Heb. ramoth, meaning "heights;" i.e., "high-priced" or valuable things, or, as some suppose, "that which grows high," like a tree (Job 28:18; Ezek. 27:16), according to the Rabbins, red coral, which was in use for ornaments.

The coral is a cretaceous marine product, the deposit by minute polypous animals of calcareous matter in cells in which the animal lives. It is of numberless shapes as it grows, but usually is branched like a tree. Great coral reefs and coral islands abound in the Red Sea, whence probably the Hebrews derived their knowledge of it. It is found of different colours, white, black, and red. The red, being esteemed the most precious, was used, as noticed above, for ornamental purposes.

Corban - a Hebrew word adopted into the Greek of the New Testament and left untranslated. It occurs only once (Mark 7:11). It means a gift or offering consecrated to God. Anything over which this word was once pronounced was irrevocably dedicated to the temple. Land, however, so dedicated might be redeemed before the year of jubilee (Lev. 27:16-24). Our Lord condemns the Pharisees for their false doctrine, inasmuch as by their traditions they had destroyed the commandment which requires children to honour their father and mother, teaching them to find excuse from helping their parents by the device of pronouncing "Corban" over their goods, thus reserving them to their own selfish use.

Cord - frequently used in its proper sense, for fastening a tent (Ex. 35:18; 39:40), yoking animals to a cart (Isa. 5:18), binding prisoners (Judg. 15:13; Ps. 2:3; 129:4), and measuring ground (2 Sam. 8;2; Ps. 78:55). Figuratively, death is spoken of as the giving way of the tent-cord (Job 4:21. "Is not their tent-cord plucked up?" R.V.). To gird one's self with a cord was a token of sorrow and humiliation. To stretch a line over a city meant to level it with the ground (Lam. 2:8). The "cords of sin" are the consequences or fruits of sin (Prov. 5:22). A "threefold cord" is a symbol of union (Eccl. 4:12). The "cords of a man" (Hos. 11:4) means that men employ, in inducing each other, methods such as are suitable to men, and not "cords" such as oxen are led by. Isaiah (5:18) says, "Woe unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart rope." This verse is thus given in the Chaldee paraphrase: "Woe to those who begin to sin by little and little, drawing sin by cords of vanity: these sins grow and increase till they are strong and are like a cart rope." This may be the true meaning. The wicked at first draw sin with a slender cord; but by-and-by their sins increase, and they are drawn after them by a cart rope. Henderson in his commentary says: "The meaning is that the persons described were not satisfied with ordinary modes of provoking the Deity, and the consequent ordinary approach of his vengeance, but, as it were, yoked themselves in the harness of iniquity, and, putting forth all their strength, drew down upon themselves, with accelerated speed, the load of punishment which their sins deserved."

Coriander - Heb. gad, (Ex. 16:31; Num. 11:7), seed to which the manna is likened in its form and colour. It is the Coriandrum sativum of botanists, an umbelliferous annual plant with a round stalk, about two feet high. It is widely cultivated in Eastern countries and in the south of Europe for the sake of its seeds, which are in the form of a little ball of the size of a peppercorn. They are used medicinally and as a spice. The Greek name of this plant is korion or koriannon, whence the name "coriander."

Corinth - a Grecian city, on the isthmus which joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. It is about 48 miles west of Athens. The ancient city was destroyed by the Romans (B.C. 146), and that mentioned in the New Testament was quite a new city, having been rebuilt about a century afterwards and peopled by a colony of freedmen from Rome. It became under the Romans the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts 18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious and immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. When Paul first visited the city (A.D. 51 or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was proconsul. Here Paul resided for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became aquainted with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure Apollos came to it from Ephesus. After an interval he visited it a second time, and remained for three months (20:3). During this second visit his Epistle to the Romans was written (probably A.D. 55). Although there were many Jewish converts at Corinth, yet the Gentile element prevailed in the church there.

Some have argued from 2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1, that Paul visited Corinth a third time (i.e., that on some unrecorded occasion he visited the city between what are usually called the first and second visits). But the passages referred to only indicate Paul's intention to visit Corinth (comp. 1 Cor. 16:5, where the Greek present tense denotes an intention), an intention which was in some way frustrated. We can hardly suppose that such a visit could have been made by the apostle without more distinct reference to it.

Corinthians, First Epistle to the - was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about the time of the Passover in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit Macedonia, and then return to Corinth (probably A.D. 57).

The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them, first from Apollos (Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they had written him on the subject, and also from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Paul thereupon wrote this letter, for the purpose of checking the factious spirit and correcting the erroneous opinions that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor. 2:13; 8:6, 16-18).

The epistle may be divided into four parts:

(1.) The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (1 Cor. 1-4).

(2.) He next treats of certain cases of immorality that had become notorious among them. They had apparently set at nought the very first principles of morality (5; 6).

(3.) In the third part he discusses various questions of doctrine and of Christian ethics in reply to certain communications they had made to him. He especially rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the Lord's supper (7-14).

(4.) The concluding part (15; 16) contains an elaborate defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had been called in question by some among them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and greetings.

This epistle "shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his physical weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much affliction and pressure of heart...and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor. 2:4); yet he restrained the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy calm which he thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives a vivid picture of the early church...It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine." The apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred evils in whatever form they may appear.

This is one of the epistles the authenticity of which has never been called in question by critics of any school, so many and so conclusive are the evidences of its Pauline origin.

The subscription to this epistle states erroneously in the Authorized Version that it was written at Philippi. This error arose from a mistranslation of 1 Cor. 16:5, "For I do pass through Macedonia," which was interpreted as meaning, "I am passing through Macedonia." In 16:8 he declares his intention of remaining some time longer in Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to "pass through Macedonia."

Corinthians, Second Epistle to the - Shortly after writing his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where intense excitement had been aroused against him, the evidence of his great success, and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual route, he reached Troas, the port of departure for Europe. Here he expected to meet with Titus, whom he had sent from Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of the effects produced on the church there by the first epistle; but was disappointed (1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 1:8; 2:12, 13). He then left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia; and at Philippi, where he tarried, he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7:6, 7), who brought him good news from Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the influence of the feelings awakened in his mind by the favourable report which Titus brought back from Corinth, this second epistle was written. It was probably written at Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, early in the year A.D. 58, and was sent to Corinth by Titus. This letter he addresses not only to the church in Corinth, but also to the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece.

The contents of this epistle may be thus arranged:

(1.) Paul speaks of his spiritual labours and course of life, and expresses his warm affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1-7).

(2.) He gives specific directions regarding the collection that was to be made for their poor brethren in Judea (8; 9).

(3.) He defends his own apostolic claim (10-13), and justifies himself from the charges and insinuations of the false teacher and his adherents.

This epistle, it has been well said, shows the individuallity of the apostle more than any other. "Human weakness, spiritual strength, the deepest tenderness of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility, a just self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and suffering, as well as for the progress of the church of Christ and for the spiritual advancement of its members, are all displayed in turn in the course of his appeal."--Lias, Second Corinthians.

Of the effects produced on the Corinthian church by this epistle we have no definite information. We know that Paul visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and that on that occasion he tarried there for three months. In his letter to Rome, written at this time, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of the church to the Romans.

Cormorant - (Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17), Heb. shalak, "plunging," or "darting down," (the Phalacrocorax carbo), ranked among the "unclean" birds; of the same family group as the pelican. It is a "plunging" bird, and is common on the coasts and the island seas of Palestine. Some think the Hebrew word should be rendered "gannet" (Sula bassana, "the solan goose"); others that it is the "tern" or "sea swallow," which also frequents the coasts of Palestine as well as the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan valley during several months of the year. But there is no reason to depart from the ordinary rendering.

In Isa. 34:11, Zeph. 2:14 (but in R.V., "pelican") the Hebrew word rendered by this name is ka'ath. It is translated "pelican" (q.v.) in Ps. 102:6. The word literally means the "vomiter," and the pelican is so called from its vomiting the shells and other things which it has voraciously swallowed. (See PELICAN.)

Corn - The word so rendered (dagan) in Gen. 27:28, 37, Num. 18:27, Deut. 28:51, Lam. 2:12, is a general term representing all the commodities we usually describe by the words corn, grain, seeds, peas, beans. With this corresponds the use of the word in John 12:24.

In Gen. 41:35, 49, Prov. 11:26, Joel 2:24 ("wheat"), the word thus translated (bar; i.e., "winnowed") means corn purified from chaff. With this corresponds the use of the word in the New Testament (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17; Acts 7:12). In Ps. 65:13 it means "growing corn."

In Gen. 42:1, 2, 19, Josh. 9:14, Neh. 10:31 ("victuals"), the word (sheber; i.e., "broken," i.e., grist) denotes generally victuals, provisions, and corn as a principal article of food.

From the time of Solomon, corn began to be exported from Palestine (Ezek. 27:17; Amos 8:5). "Plenty of corn" was a part of Issac's blessing conferred upon Jacob (Gen. 27:28; comp. Ps. 65:13).

Cornelius - a centurion whose history is narrated in Acts 10. He was a "devout man," and like the centurion of Capernaum, believed in the God of Israel. His residence at Caesrea probably brought him into contact with Jews who communicated to him their expectations regarding the Messiah; and thus he was prepared to welcome the message Peter brought him. He became the first fruit of the Gentile world to Christ. He and his family were baptized and admitted into the Christian church (Acts 10:1, 44-48). (See CENTURION.)

Corner - The angle of a house (Job 1:19) or a street (Prov. 7:8). "Corners" in Neh. 9:22 denotes the various districts of the promised land allotted to the Israelites. In Num. 24:17, the "corners of Moab" denotes the whole land of Moab. The "corner of a field" (Lev. 19:9; 23:22) is its extreme part, which was not to be reaped. The Jews were prohibited from cutting the "corners," i.e., the extremities, of the hair and whiskers running round the ears (Lev. 19:27; 21:5). The "four corners of the earth" in Isa. 11:12 and Ezek. 7:2 denotes the whole land. The "corners of the streets" mentioned in Matt. 6:5 means the angles where streets meet so as to form a square or place of public resort.

The corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr. 26:9) was on the north-west side of the city.

Corner-stone (Job 38:6; Isa. 28:16), a block of great importance in binding together the sides of a building. The "head of the corner" (Ps. 118:22, 23) denotes the coping, the "coign of vantage", i.e., the topstone of a building. But the word "corner stone" is sometimes used to denote some person of rank and importance (Isa. 28:16). It is applied to our Lord, who was set in highest honour (Matt. 21:42). He is also styled "the chief corner stone" (Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet. 2:6-8). When Zechariah (10:4), speaking of Judah, says, "Out of him came forth the corner," he is probably to be understood as ultimately referring to the Messiah as the "corner stone." (See TEMPLE, SOLOMON'S ¯T0003612.)

Cornet - Heb. shophar, "brightness," with reference to the clearness of its sound (1 Chr. 15:28; 2 Chr. 15:14; Ps. 98:6; Hos. 5:8). It is usually rendered in the Authorized Version "trumpet." It denotes the long and straight horn, about eighteen inches long. The words of Joel, "Blow the trumpet," literally, "Sound the cornet," refer to the festival which was the preparation for the day of Atonement. In Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word (keren) so rendered is a curved horn. The word "cornet" in 2 Sam. 6:5 (Heb. mena'an'im, occurring only here) was some kind of instrument played by being shaken like the Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or bells hung loosely on iron rods.

Cotes - pens or enclosures for flocks (2 Chr. 32:28, "cotes for flocks;" R.V., "flocks in folds").

Cottage - (1.) A booth in a vineyard (Isa. 1:8); a temporary shed covered with leaves or straw to shelter the watchman that kept the garden. These were slight fabrics, and were removed when no longer needed, or were left to be blown down in winter (Job 27:18).

(2.) A lodging-place (rendered "lodge" in Isa. 1:8); a slighter structure than the "booth," as the cucumber patch is more temporary than a vineyard (Isa. 24:20). It denotes a frail structure of boughs supported on a few poles, which is still in use in the East, or a hammock suspended between trees, in which the watchman was accustomed to sleep during summer.

(3.) In Zeph. 2:6 it is the rendering of the Hebrew keroth, which some suppose to denote rather "pits" (R.V. marg., "caves") or "wells of water," such as shepherds would sink.

Couch - (Gen. 49:4; 1 Chr. 5:1; Job 7:13; Ps. 6:6, etc.), a seat for repose or rest. (See BED.)

Coulter - (1 Sam. 13:20, 21), an agricultural instrument, elsewhere called "ploughshare" (Isa. 2:4; Micah 4:3; Joel 3:10). It was the facing-piece of a plough, analogous to the modern coulter.

Council - spoken of counsellors who sat in public trials with the governor of a province (Acts 25:12).

The Jewish councils were the Sanhedrim, or supreme council of the nation, which had subordinate to it smaller tribunals (the "judgment," perhaps, in Matt. 5:21, 22) in the cities of Palestine (Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9). In the time of Christ the functions of the Sanhedrim were limited (John 16:2; 2 Cor. 11:24). In Ps. 68:27 the word "council" means simply a company of persons. (R.V. marg., "company.")

In ecclesiastical history the word is used to denote an assembly of pastors or bishops for the discussion and regulation of church affairs. The first of these councils was that of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem, of which we have a detailed account in Acts 15.

Counsellor - an adviser (Prov. 11:14; 15:22), a king's state counsellor (2 Sam. 15:12). Used once of the Messiah (Isa. 9:6). In Mark 15:43, Luke 23:50, the word probably means a member of the Jewish Sanhedrim.

Courses - When David was not permitted to build the temple, he proceeded, among the last acts of his life, with the assistance of Zadok and Ahimelech, to organize the priestly and musical services to be conducted in the house of God. (1.) He divided the priests into twenty-four courses (1 Chr. 24:1-19), sixteen being of the house of Eleazar and eight of that of Ithamar. Each course was under a head or chief, and ministered for a week, the order being determined by lot. (2.) The rest of the 38,000 Levites (23:4) were divided also into twenty-four courses, each to render some allotted service in public worship: 4,000 in twenty-four courses were set apart as singers and musicians under separate leaders (25); 4,000 as porters or keepers of the doors and gates of the sanctuary (26:1-19); and 6,000 as officers and judges to see to the administration of the law in all civil and ecclesiastical matters (20-32).

This arrangement was re-established by Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:2); and afterwards the four sacerdotal courses which are said to have returned from the Captivity were re-divided into the original number of twenty-four by Ezra (6:18).

Court - the enclosure of the tabernacle (Ex. 27:9-19; 40:8), of the temple (1 Kings 6:36), of a prison (Neh. 3:25), of a private house (2 Sam. 17:18), and of a king's palace (2 Kings 20:4).

Covenant - a contract or agreement between two parties. In the Old Testament the Hebrew word berith is always thus translated. Berith is derived from a root which means "to cut," and hence a covenant is a "cutting," with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties passing between them, in making a covenant (Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19).

The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke, which is, however, rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought to be rendered, just as the word berith of the Old Testament, "covenant."

This word is used (1) of a covenant or compact between man and man (Gen. 21:32), or between tribes or nations (1 Sam. 11:1; Josh. 9:6, 15). In entering into a convenant, Jehovah was solemnly called on to witness the transaction (Gen. 31:50), and hence it was called a "covenant of the Lord" (1 Sam. 20:8). The marriage compact is called "the covenant of God" (Prov. 2:17), because the marriage was made in God's name. Wicked men are spoken of as acting as if they had made a "covenant with death" not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour them (Isa. 28:15, 18).

(2.) The word is used with reference to God's revelation of himself in the way of promise or of favour to men. Thus God's promise to Noah after the Flood is called a covenant (Gen. 9; Jer. 33:20, "my covenant"). We have an account of God's covernant with Abraham (Gen. 17, comp. Lev. 26:42), of the covenant of the priesthood (Num. 25:12, 13; Deut. 33:9; Neh. 13:29), and of the covenant of Sinai (Ex. 34:27, 28; Lev. 26:15), which was afterwards renewed at different times in the history of Israel (Deut. 29; Josh. 1:24; 2 Chr. 15; 23; 29; 34; Ezra 10; Neh. 9). In conformity with human custom, God's covenant is said to be confirmed with an oath (Deut. 4:31; Ps. 89:3), and to be accompanied by a sign (Gen. 9; 17). Hence the covenant is called God's "counsel," "oath," "promise" (Ps. 89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb. 6:13-20; Luke 1:68-75). God's covenant consists wholly in the bestowal of blessing (Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33, 34).

The term covenant is also used to designate the regular succession of day and night (Jer. 33:20), the Sabbath (Ex. 31:16), circumcision (Gen. 17:9, 10), and in general any ordinance of God (Jer. 34:13, 14).

A "covenant of salt" signifies an everlasting covenant, in the sealing or ratifying of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, is used (Num. 18:19; Lev. 2:13; 2 Chr. 13:5).

COVENANT OF WORKS, the constitution under which Adam was placed at his creation. In this covenant, (1.) The contracting parties were (a) God the moral Governor, and (b) Adam, a free moral agent, and representative of all his natural posterity (Rom. 5:12-19). (2.) The promise was "life" (Matt. 19:16, 17; Gal. 3:12). (3.) The condition was perfect obedience to the law, the test in this case being abstaining from eating the fruit of the "tree of knowledge," etc. (4.) The penalty was death (Gen. 2:16, 17).

This covenant is also called a covenant of nature, as made with man in his natural or unfallen state; a covenant of life, because "life" was the promise attached to obedience; and a legal covenant, because it demanded perfect obedience to the law.

The "tree of life" was the outward sign and seal of that life which was promised in the covenant, and hence it is usually called the seal of that covenant.

This covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled all its conditions in behalf of his people, and now offers salvation on the condition of faith. It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable justice of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to Christ and accepted his righteousness.

CONVENANT OF GRACE, the eternal plan of redemption entered into by the three persons of the Godhead, and carried out by them in its several parts. In it the Father represented the Godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his people as their surety (John 17:4, 6, 9; Isa. 42:6; Ps. 89:3).

The conditions of this covenant were, (1.) On the part of the Father (a) all needful preparation to the Son for the accomplishment of his work (Heb. 10:5; Isa. 42:1-7); (b) support in the work (Luke 22:43); and (c) a glorious reward in the exaltation of Christ when his work was done (Phil. 2:6-11), his investiture with universal dominion (John 5:22; Ps. 110:1), his having the administration of the covenant committed into his hands (Matt. 28:18; John 1:12; 17:2; Acts 2:33), and in the final salvation of all his people (Isa. 35:10; 53:10, 11; Jer. 31:33; Titus 1:2). (2.) On the part of the Son the conditions were (a) his becoming incarnate (Gal. 4:4, 5); and (b) as the second Adam his representing all his people, assuming their place and undertaking all their obligations under the violated covenant of works; (c) obeying the law (Ps. 40:8; Isa. 42:21; John 9:4, 5), and (d) suffering its penalty (Isa. 53; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13), in their stead.

Christ, the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in behalf of his people, and dispenses to them all its blessings. In Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24, this title is given to Christ. (See DISPENSATION.)

Covering of the eyes - occurs only in Gen. 20:16. In the Revised Version the rendering is "it (i.e., Abimelech's present of 1,000 pieces of silver to Abraham) is for thee a covering of the eyes." This has been regarded as an implied advice to Sarah to conform to the custom of married women, and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes as well as the rest of the face.

Covetousness - a strong desire after the possession of worldly things (Col. 3:5; Eph. 5:5; Heb. 13:5; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10; Matt. 6:20). It assumes sometimes the more aggravated form of avarice, which is the mark of cold-hearted worldliness.

Cow - A cow and her calf were not to be killed on the same day (Lev. 22:28; Ex. 23:19; Deut. 22:6, 7). The reason for this enactment is not given. A state of great poverty is described in the words of Isa. 7:21-25, where, instead of possessing great resources, a man shall depend for the subsistence of himself and his family on what a single cow and two sheep could yield.

Crane - (Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7). In both of these passages the Authorized Version has reversed the Hebrew order of the words. "Crane or swallow" should be "swallow or crane," as in the Revised Version. The rendering is there correct. The Hebrew for crane is 'agur, the Grus cincerea, a bird well known in Palestine. It is migratory, and is distinguished by its loud voice, its cry being hoarse and melancholy.

Creation - "In the beginning" God created, i.e., called into being, all things out of nothing. This creative act on the part of God was absolutely free, and for infinitely wise reasons. The cause of all things exists only in the will of God. The work of creation is attributed (1) to the Godhead (Gen. 1:1, 26); (2) to the Father (1 Cor. 8:6); (3) to the Son (John 1:3; Col. 1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy Spirit (Gen. 1:2; Job 26:13; Ps. 104:30). The fact that he is the Creator distinguishes Jehovah as the true God (Isa. 37:16; 40:12, 13; 54:5; Ps. 96:5; Jer. 10:11, 12). The one great end in the work of creation is the manifestation of the glory of the Creator (Col. 1:16; Rev. 4:11; Rom. 11:36). God's works, equally with God's word, are a revelation from him; and between the teachings of the one and those of the other, when rightly understood, there can be no contradiction.

Traditions of the creation, disfigured by corruptions, are found among the records of ancient Eastern nations. (See ACCAD.) A peculiar interest belongs to the traditions of the Accadians, the primitive inhabitants of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. These within the last few years have been brought to light in the tablets and cylinders which have been rescued from the long-buried palaces and temples of Assyria. They bear a remarkable resemblance to the record of Genesis.

Creature - denotes the whole creation in Rom. 8:39; Col. 1:15; Rev. 5:13; the whole human race in Mark 16:15; Rom. 8:19-22.

The living creatures in Ezek. 10:15, 17, are imaginary beings, symbols of the Divine attributes and operations.

Crescens - increasing, probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He was one of Paul's assistants (2 Tim. 4:10), probably a Christian of Rome.

Crete - now called Candia, one of the largest islands in the Meditterranean, about 140 miles long and 35 broad. It was at one time a very prosperous and populous island, having a "hundred cities." The character of the people is described in Paul's quotation from "one of their own poets" (Epimenides) in his epistle to Titus: "The Cretans are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies" (Titus 1:12). Jews from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The island was visited by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27). Here Paul subsequently left Titus (1:5) "to ordain elders." Some have supposed that it was the original home of the Caphtorim (q.v.) or Philistines.

Crimson - See COLOUR.

Crisping-pin - (Isa. 3:22; R.V., "satchel"), some kind of female ornament, probably like the modern reticule. The Hebrew word harit properly signifies pouch or casket or purse. It is rendered "bag" in 2 Kings 5:23.

Crispus - curled, the chief of the synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18:8). He was converted and, with his family, baptized by Paul (1 Cor. 1:14).

Cross - in the New Testament the instrument of crucifixion, and hence used for the crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph. 2:16; Heb. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1:17, 18; Gal. 5:11; 6:12, 14; Phil. 3:18). The word is also used to denote any severe affliction or trial (Matt. 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; 10:21).

The forms in which the cross is represented are these:

1. The crux simplex (I), a "single piece without transom."

2. The crux decussata (X), or St. Andrew's cross.

3. The crux commissa (T), or St. Anthony's cross.

4. The crux immissa (t), or Latin cross, which was the kind of cross on which our Saviour died. Above our Lord's head, on the projecting beam, was placed the "title." (See CRUCIFIXION.)

After the conversion, so-called, of Constantine the Great (B.C. 313), the cross first came into use as an emblem of Christianity. He pretended at a critical moment that he saw a flaming cross in the heavens bearing the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces", i.e., By this sign thou shalt conquer, and that on the following night Christ himself appeared and ordered him to take for his standard the sign of this cross. In this form a new standard, called the Labarum, was accordingly made, and borne by the Roman armies. It remained the standard of the Roman army till the downfall of the Western empire. It bore the embroidered monogram of Christ, i.e., the first two Greek letters of his name, X and P (chi and rho), with the Alpha and Omega. (See A.)

Crown - (1.) Denotes the plate of gold in the front of the high priest's mitre (Ex. 29:6; 39:30). The same Hebrew word so rendered (ne'zer) denotes the diadem worn by Saul in battle (2 Sam. 1:10), and also that which was used at the coronation of Joash (2 Kings 11:12).

(2.) The more general name in Hebrew for a crown is 'atarah, meaning a "circlet." This is used of crowns and head ornaments of divers kinds, including royal crowns. Such was the crown taken from the king of Ammon by David (2 Sam. 12:30). The crown worn by the Assyrian kings was a high mitre, sometimes adorned with flowers. There are sculptures also representing the crowns worn by the early Egyptian and Persian kings. Sometimes a diadem surrounded the royal head-dress of two or three fillets. This probably signified that the wearer had dominion over two or three countries. In Rev. 12:3; 13:1, we read of "many crowns," a token of extended dominion.

(3.) The ancient Persian crown (Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was called kether; i.e., "a chaplet," a high cap or tiara. Crowns were worn sometimes to represent honour and power (Ezek. 23:42). They were worn at marriages (Cant. 3:11; Isa. 61:10, "ornaments;" R.V., "a garland"), and at feasts and public festivals.

The crown was among the Romans and Greeks a symbol of victory and reward. The crown or wreath worn by the victors in the Olympic games was made of leaves of the wild olive; in the Pythian games, of laurel; in the Nemean games, of parsley; and in the Isthmian games, of the pine. The Romans bestowed the "civic crown" on him who saved the life of a citizen. It was made of the leaves of the oak. In opposition to all these fading crowns the apostles speak of the incorruptible crown, the crown of life (James 1:12; Rev. 2:10) "that fadeth not away" (1 Pet. 5:4, Gr. amarantinos; comp. 1:4). Probably the word "amaranth" was applied to flowers we call "everlasting," the "immortal amaranth."

Crown of thorns - our Lord was crowned with a, in mockery by the Romans (Matt. 27:29). The object of Pilate's guard in doing this was probably to insult, and not specially to inflict pain. There is nothing to show that the shrub thus used was, as has been supposed, the spina Christi, which could have been easily woven into a wreath. It was probably the thorny nabk, which grew abundantly round about Jerusalem, and whose flexible, pliant, and round branches could easily be platted into the form of a crown. (See THORN ¯T0003642, 3.)

Crucifixion - a common mode of punishment among heathen nations in early times. It is not certain whether it was known among the ancient Jews; probably it was not. The modes of capital punishment according to the Mosaic law were, by the sword (Ex. 21), strangling, fire (Lev. 20), and stoning (Deut. 21).

This was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and to a Jew it would acquire greater horror from the curse in Deut. 21:23.

This punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to scourging. In the case of our Lord, however, his scourging was rather before the sentence was passed upon him, and was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting pity and procuring his escape from further punishment (Luke 23:22; John 19:1).

The condemned one carried his own cross to the place of execution, which was outside the city, in some conspicuous place set apart for the purpose. Before the nailing to the cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh (the sopor) was given, for the purpose of deadening the pangs of the sufferer. Our Lord refused this cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt. 27:34). The spongeful of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of the Roman soldiers, which was put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt. 27:48; Luke 23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of his thirst (John 19:29). The accounts given of the crucifixion of our Lord are in entire agreement with the customs and practices of the Roman in such cases. He was crucified between two "malefactors" (Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:32), and was watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23; Matt. 27:36, 54), with their centurion. The "breaking of the legs" of the malefactors was intended to hasten death, and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the unusual rapidity of our Lord's death (19:33) was due to his previous sufferings and his great mental anguish. The omission of the breaking of his legs was the fulfilment of a type (Ex. 12:46). He literally died of a broken heart, a ruptured heart, and hence the flowing of blood and water from the wound made by the soldier's spear (John 19:34). Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the cross, namely, (1) Luke 23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26; (4) Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John 19:28; (6) 19:30; (7) Luke 23:46.

Cruse - a utensil; a flask or cup for holding water (1 Sam. 26:11, 12, 16; 1 Kings 19:6) or oil (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). In 1 Kings 14:3 the word there so rendered means properly a bottle, as in Jer. 19:1, 10, or pitcher. In 2 Kings 2:20, a platter or flat metal saucer is intended. The Hebrew word here used is translated "dish" in 21:13; "pans," in 2 Chr. 35:13; and "bosom," in Prov. 19:24; 26:15 (R.V., "dish").

Crystal - (Ezek. 1:22, with the epithet "terrible," as dazzling the spectators with its brightness). The word occurs in Rev. 4:6; 21:11; 22:1. It is a stone of the flint order, the most refined kind of quartz. The Greek word here used means also literally "ice." The ancients regarded the crystal as only pure water congealed into extreme hardness by great length of time.

Cubit - Heb. 'ammah; i.e., "mother of the arm," the fore-arm, is a word derived from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It is difficult to determine the exact length of this measure, from the uncertainty whether it included the entire length from the elbow to the tip of the longest finger, or only from the elbow to the root of the hand at the wrist. The probability is that the longer was the original cubit. The common computation as to the length of the cubit makes it 20.24 inches for the ordinary cubit, and 21.888 inches for the sacred one. This is the same as the Egyptian measurements.

A rod or staff the measure of a cubit is called in Judg. 3:16 gomed, which literally means a "cut," something "cut off." The LXX. and Vulgate render it "span."

Cuckoo - (Heb. shahaph), from a root meaning "to be lean; slender." This bird is mentioned only in Lev. 11:16 and Deut. 14:15 (R.V., "seamew"). Some have interpreted the Hebrew word by "petrel" or "shearwater" (Puffinus cinereus), which is found on the coast of Syria; others think it denotes the "sea-gull" or "seamew." The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) feeds on reptiles and large insects. It is found in Asia and Africa as well as in Europe. It only passes the winter in Palestine. The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry Yakub_, and hence they call it _tir el-Yakub; i.e., "Jacob's bird."

Cucumbers - (Heb. plur. kishshuim; i.e., "hard," "difficult" of digestion, only in Num. 11:5). This vegetable is extensively cultivated in the East at the present day, as it appears to have been in earlier times among the Hebrews. It belongs to the gourd family of plants. In the East its cooling pulp and juice are most refreshing. "We need not altogether wonder that the Israelites, wearily marching through the arid solitudes of the Sinaitic peninsula, thought more of the cucumbers and watermelons of which they had had no lack in Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage which was the price of these luxuries." Groser's Scripture Natural History.

Isaiah speaks of a "lodge" (1:8; Heb. sukkah), i.e., a shed or edifice more solid than a booth, for the protection throughout the season from spring to autumn of the watchers in a "garden of cucumbers."

Cummin - (Heb. kammon; i.e., a "condiment"), the fruit or seed of an umbelliferous plant, the Cuminum sativum, still extensively cultivated in the East. Its fruit is mentioned in Isa. 28:25, 27. In the New Testament it is mentioned in Matt. 23:23, where our Lord pronounces a "woe" on the scribes and Pharisees, who were zealous in paying tithes of "mint and anise and cummin," while they omitted the weightier matters of the law." "It is used as a spice, both bruised, to mix with bread, and also boiled, in the various messes and stews which compose an Oriental banquet." Tristram, Natural History.

Cup - a wine-cup (Gen. 40:11, 21), various forms of which are found on Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. All Solomon's drinking vessels were of gold (1 Kings 10: 21). The cups mentioned in the New Testament were made after Roman and Greek models, and were sometimes of gold (Rev. 17:4).

The art of divining by means of a cup was practiced in Egypt (Gen. 44:2-17), and in the East generally.

The "cup of salvation" (Ps. 116:13) is the cup of thanksgiving for the great salvation. The "cup of consolation" (Jer. 16:7) refers to the custom of friends sending viands and wine to console relatives in mourning (Prov. 31:6). In 1 Cor. 10:16, the "cup of blessing" is contrasted with the "cup of devils" (1 Cor. 10:21). The sacramental cup is the "cup of blessing," because of blessing pronounced over it (Matt. 26:27; Luke 22:17). The "portion of the cup" (Ps. 11:6; 16:5) denotes one's condition of life, prosperous or adverse. A "cup" is also a type of sensual allurement (Jer. 51:7; Prov. 23:31; Rev. 17:4). We read also of the "cup of astonishment," the "cup of trembling," and the "cup of God's wrath" (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:32; Rev. 16:19; comp. Matt. 26:39, 42; John 18:11). The cup is also the symbol of death (Matt. 16:28; Mark 9:1; Heb. 2:9).

Cup-bearer - an officer of high rank with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish monarchs. The cup-bearer of the king of Egypt is mentioned in connection with Joseph's history (Gen. 40:1-21; 41:9). Rabshakeh (q.v.) was cup-bearer in the Assyrian court (2 Kings 18:17). Nehemiah filled this office to the king of Persia (Neh. 1:11). We read also of Solomon's cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4).

Curious arts - (Acts 19:19), magical arts; jugglery practised by the Ephesian conjurers. Ephesus was noted for its wizard and the "Ephesian spells;" i.e., charms or scraps of parchment written over with certain formula, which were worn as a safeguard against all manner of evils. The more important and powerful of these charms were written out in books which circulated among the exorcists, and were sold at a great price.

Curse - denounced by God against the serpent (Gen. 3:14), and against Cain (4:11). These divine maledictions carried their effect with them. Prophetical curses were sometimes pronounced by holy men (Gen. 9:25; 49:7; Deut. 27:15; Josh. 6:26). Such curses are not the consequence of passion or revenge, they are predictions.

No one on pain of death shall curse father or mother (Ex. 21:17), nor the prince of his people (22:28), nor the deaf (Lev. 19:14). Cursing God or blaspheming was punishable by death (Lev. 24:10-16). The words "curse God and die" (R.V., "renounce God and die"), used by Job's wife (Job 2:9), have been variously interpreted. Perhaps they simply mean that as nothing but death was expected, God would by this cursing at once interpose and destroy Job, and so put an end to his sufferings.

Curtain - (1.) Ten curtains, each twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, made of fine linen, also eleven made of goat's hair, covered the tabernacle (Ex. 26:1-13; 36:8-17).

(2.) The sacred curtain, separating the holy of holies from the sanctuary, is designated by a different Hebrew word (peroketh). It is described as a "veil of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work" (Ex. 26:31; Lev. 16:2; Num. 18:7).

(3.) "Stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain" (Isa. 40:22), is an expression used with reference to the veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen over their courts in summer. According to the prophet, the heavens are spread over our heads as such an awning. Similar expressions are found in Ps. 104:2l; comp. Isa. 44:24; Job 9:8.

Cush - black. (1.) A son, probably the eldest, of Ham, and the father of Nimrod (Gen. 10:8; 1 Chr. 1:10). From him the land of Cush seems to have derived its name. The question of the precise locality of the land of Cush has given rise to not a little controversy. The second river of Paradise surrounded the whole land of Cush (Gen. 2:13, R.V.). The term Cush is in the Old Testament generally applied to the countries south of the Israelites. It was the southern limit of Egypt (Ezek. 29:10, A.V. "Ethiopia," Heb. Cush), with which it is generally associated (Ps. 68:31; Isa. 18:1; Jer. 46:9, etc.). It stands also associated with Elam (Isa. 11:11), with Persia (Ezek. 38:5), and with the Sabeans (Isa. 45:14). From these facts it has been inferred that Cush included Arabia and the country on the west coast of the Red Sea. Rawlinson takes it to be the country still known as Khuzi-stan, on the east side of the Lower Tigris. But there are intimations which warrant the conclusion that there was also a Cush in Africa, the Ethiopia (so called by the Greeks) of Africa. Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp. 30:4-6) of it as lying south of Egypt. It was the country now known to us as Nubia and Abyssinia (Isa. 18:1; Zeph. 3:10, Heb. Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia is termed Kesh. The Cushites appear to have spread along extensive tracts, stretching from the Upper Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period there was a stream of migration of Cushites "from Ethiopia, properly so called, through Arabia, Babylonia, and Persia, to Western India." The Hamite races, soon after their arrival in Africa, began to spread north, east, and west. Three branches of the Cushite or Ethiopian stock, moving from Western Asia, settled in the regions contiguous to the Persian Gulf. One branch, called the Cossaeans, settled in the mountainous district on the east of the Tigris, known afterwards as Susiana; another occupied the lower regions of the Euphrates and the Tigris; while a third colonized the southern shores and islands of the gulf, whence they afterwards emigrated to the Mediterranean and settled on the coast of Palestine as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was a great Cushite chief. He conquered the Accadians, a Tauranian race, already settled in Mesopotamia, and founded his kingdom, the Cushites mingling with the Accads, and so forming the Chaldean nation.

(2.) A Benjamite of this name is mentioned in the title of Ps. 7. "Cush was probably a follower of Saul, the head of his tribe, and had sought the friendship of David for the purpose of 'rewarding evil to him that was at peace with him.'"

Cushan - probably a poetic or prolonged name of the land of Cush, the Arabian Cush (Hab. 3:7). Some have, however, supposed this to be the same as Chushan-rishathaim (Judg. 3:8, 10), i.e., taking the latter part of the name as a title or local appellation, Chushan "of the two iniquities" (= oppressing Israel, and provoking them to idolatry), a Mesopotamian king, identified by Rawlinson with Asshur-ris-ilim (the father of Tiglathpileser I.); but incorrectly, for the empire of Assyria was not yet founded. He held Israel in bondage for eight years.

Cushite - (1.) The messenger sent by Joab to David to announce his victory over Absalom (2 Sam. 18:32).

(2.) The father of Shelemiah (Jer. 36:14).

(3.) Son of Gedaliah, and father of the prophet Zephaniah (1:1).

(4.) Moses married a Cushite woman (Num. 12:1). From this circumstance some have supposed that Zipporah was meant, and hence that Midian was Cush.

Custom - a tax imposed by the Romans. The tax-gatherers were termed publicans (q.v.), who had their stations at the gates of cities, and in the public highways, and at the place set apart for that purpose, called the "receipt of custom" (Matt.9: 9; Mark 2:14), where they collected the money that was to be paid on certain goods (Matt.17:25). These publicans were tempted to exact more from the people than was lawful, and were, in consequence of their extortions, objects of great hatred. The Pharisees would have no intercourse with them (Matt.5:46, 47; 9:10, 11).

A tax or tribute (q.v.) of half a shekel was annually paid by every adult Jew for the temple. It had to be paid in Jewish coin (Matt. 22:17-19; Mark 12:14, 15). Money-changers (q.v.) were necessary, to enable the Jews who came up to Jerusalem at the feasts to exchange their foreign coin for Jewish money; but as it was forbidden by the law to carry on such a traffic for emolument (Deut. 23:19, 20), our Lord drove them from the temple (Matt. 21:12: Mark 11:15).

Cuthah - one of the Babylonian cities or districts from which Shalmaneser transplanted certain colonists to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). Some have conjectured that the "Cutheans" were identical with the "Cossaeans" who inhabited the hill-country to the north of the river Choaspes. Cuthah is now identified with Tell Ibrahim, 15 miles north-east of Babylon.

Cutting - the flesh in various ways was an idolatrous practice, a part of idol-worship (Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). The Israelites were commanded not to imitate this practice (Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1). The tearing of the flesh from grief and anguish of spirit in mourning for the dead was regarded as a mark of affection (Jer. 16:6; 41:5; 48:37).

Allusions are made in Revelation (13:16; 17:5; 19:20) to the practice of printing marks on the body, to indicate allegiance to a deity. We find also references to it, through in a different direction, by Paul (Gal. 6; 7) and by Ezekiel (9:4). (See HAIR.)

Cymbals - (Heb. tzeltzelim, from a root meaning to "tinkle"), musical instruments, consisting of two convex pieces of brass one held in each hand, which were clashed together to produce a loud clanging sound; castanets; "loud cymbals." "Highsounding cymbals" consisted of two larger plates, one held also in each hand (2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:16, 19, 28; 1 Cor. 13:1).

Cypress - (Heb. tirzah, "hardness"), mentioned only in Isa. 44:14 (R.V., "holm tree"). The oldest Latin version translates this word by ilex, i.e., the evergreen oak, which may possibly have been the tree intended; but there is great probability that our Authorized Version is correct in rendering it "cypress." This tree grows abundantly on the mountains of Hermon. Its wood is hard and fragrant, and very durable. Its foliage is dark and gloomy. It is an evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens). "Throughout the East it is used as a funereal tree; and its dark, tall, waving plumes render it peculiarly appropriate among the tombs."

Cyprus - one of the largest islands of the Mediterranean, about 148 miles long and 40 broad. It is distant about 60 miles from the Syrian coast. It was the "Chittim" of the Old Testament (Num. 24:24). The Greek colonists gave it the name of Kypros, from the cyprus, i.e., the henna (see CAMPHIRE ¯T0000701), which grew on this island. It was originally inhabited by Phoenicians. In B.C. 477 it fell under the dominion of the Greeks; and became a Roman province B.C. 58. In ancient times it was a centre of great commercial activity. Corn and wine and oil were produced here in the greatest perfection. It was rich also in timber and in mineral wealth.

It is first mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 4:36) as the native place of Barnabas. It was the scene of Paul's first missionary labours (13:4-13), when he and Barnabas and John Mark were sent forth by the church of Antioch. It was afterwards visited by Barnabas and Mark alone (15:39). Mnason, an "old disciple," probaly one of the converts of the day of Pentecost belonging to this island, is mentioned (21:16). It is also mentioned in connection with the voyages of Paul (Acts 21:3; 27:4). After being under the Turks for three hundred years, it was given up to the British Government in 1878.

Cyrene - a city (now Tripoli) in Upper Libya, North Africa, founded by a colony of Greeks (B.C. 630). It contained latterly a large number of Jews, who were introduced into the city by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, because he thought they would contribute to the security of the place. They increased in number and influence; and we are thus prepared for the frequent references to them in connection with the early history of Christianity. Simon, who bore our Lord's cross, was a native of this place (Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21). Jews from Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:10); and Cyrenian Jews had a synagogue at Jerusalem (6:9). Converts belonging to Cyrene contributed to the formation of the first Gentile church at Antioch (11:20). Among "the prophets and teachers" who "ministered to the Lord at Antioch" was Lucius of Cyrene (13:1).

Cyrenius - the Grecized form of Quirinus. His full name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. Recent historical investigation has proved that Quirinus was governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria at the time of our Lord's birth. Cilicia, which he ruled, being a province of Syria, he is called the governor, which he was de jure, of Syria. Some ten years afterwards he was appointed governor of Syria for the second time. During his tenure of office, at the time of our Lord's birth (Luke 2:2), a "taxing" (R.V., "enrolment;" i.e., a registration) of the people was "first made;" i.e., was made for the first time under his government. (See TAXING.)

Cyrus - (Heb. Ko'resh), the celebrated "King of Persia" (Elam) who was conqueror of Babylon, and issued the decree of liberation to the Jews (Ezra 1:1, 2). He was the son of Cambyses, the prince of Persia, and was born about B.C. 599. In the year B.C. 559 he became king of Persia, the kingdom of Media being added to it partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great military leader, bent on universal conquest. Babylon fell before his army (B.C. 538) on the night of Belshazzar's feast (Dan. 5:30), and then the ancient dominion of Assyria was also added to his empire (cf., "Go up, O Elam", Isa.21:2).

Hitherto the great kings of the earth had only oppressed the Jews. Cyrus was to them as a "shepherd" (Isa. 44:28; 45:1). God employed him in doing service to his ancient people. He may posibly have gained, through contact with the Jews, some knowledge of their religion.

The "first year of Cyrus" (Ezra 1:1) is not the year of his elevation to power over the Medes, nor over the Persians, nor the year of the fall of Babylon, but the year succeeding the two years during which "Darius the Mede" was viceroy in Babylon after its fall. At this time only (B.C. 536) Cyrus became actual king over Palestine, which became a part of his Babylonian empire. The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem marked a great epoch in the history of the Jewish people (2 Chr. 36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-4; 4:3; 5:13-17; 6:3-5).

This decree was discovered "at Achmetha [R.V. marg., "Ecbatana"], in the palace that is in the province of the Medes" (Ezra 6:2). A chronicle drawn up just after the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, gives the history of the reign of Nabonidus (Nabunahid), the last king of Babylon, and of the fall of the Babylonian empire. In B.C. 538 there was a revolt in Southern Babylonia, while the army of Cyrus entered the country from the north. In June the Babylonian army was completely defeated at Opis, and immediately afterwards Sippara opened its gates to the conqueror. Gobryas (Ugbaru), the governor of Kurdistan, was then sent to Babylon, which surrendered "without fighting," and the daily services in the temples continued without a break. In October, Cyrus himself arrived, and proclaimed a general amnesty, which was communicated by Gobryas to "all the province of Babylon," of which he had been made governor. Meanwhile, Nabonidus, who had concealed himself, was captured, but treated honourably; and when his wife died, Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conducted the funeral. Cyrus now assumed the title of "king of Babylon," claimed to be the descendant of the ancient kings, and made rich offerings to the temples. At the same time he allowed the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia to return to their old homes, carrying with them the images of their gods. Among these populations were the Jews, who, as they had no images, took with them the sacred vessels of the temple.

"D"

Daberath - pasture, a Levitical town of Issachar (Josh. 19:12; 21:28), near the border of Zebulum. It is the modern small village of Deburich, at the base of Mount Tabor. Tradition has incorrectly made it the scene of the miracle of the cure of the lunatic child (Matt. 17:14).

Daemon - the Greek form, rendered "devil" in the Authorized Version of the New Testament. Daemons are spoken of as spiritual beings (Matt. 8:16; 10:1; 12:43-45) at enmity with God, and as having a certain power over man (James 2:19; Rev. 16:14). They recognize our Lord as the Son of God (Matt. 8:20; Luke 4:41). They belong to the number of those angels that "kept not their first estate," "unclean spirits," "fallen angels," the angels of the devil (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7-9). They are the "principalities and powers" against which we must "wrestle" (Eph. 6:12).

Daemoniac - one "possessed with a devil." In the days of our Lord and his apostles, evil spirits, "daemons," were mysteriously permitted by God to exercise an influence both over the souls and bodies of men, inflicting dumbness (Matt. 9:32), blindness (12:22), epilepsy (Mark 9:17-27), insanity (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1-5). Daemoniacs are frequently distinguished from those who are afflicted with ordinary bodily maladies (Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18; Luke 6:17, 18). The daemons speak in their own persons (Matt. 8:29; Mark 1:23, 24; 5:7). This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and of temptation over men. In the daemoniac his personality seems to be destroyed, and his actions, words, and even thoughts to be overborne by the evil spirit (Mark, l.c.; Acts 19:15).

Dagon - little fish; diminutive from dag = a fish, the fish-god; the national god of the Philistines (Judg. 16:23). This idol had the body of a fish with the head and hands of a man. It was an Assyrio-Babylonian deity, the worship of which was introduced among the Philistines through Chaldea. The most famous of the temples of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg. 16:23-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1-7). (See FISH.)

Dagon's house - (1 Sam. 5:2), or Beth-dagon, as elsewhere rendered (Josh.15: 41; 19:27), was the sanctuary or temple of Dagon.

The Beth-dagon of Josh. 15:41 was one of the cities of the tribe of Judah, in the lowland or plain which stretches westward. It has not been identified.

The Beth-dagon of Josh. 19:27 was one of the border cities of Asher.

That of 1 Chr. 10:10 was in the western half-tribe of Manasseh, where the Philistines, after their victory at Gilboa, placed Saul's head in the temple of their god. (Comp. 1 Sam. 31:8-13).

Daily sacrifice - (Dan. 8:12; 11:31; 12:11), a burnt offering of two lambs of a year old, which were daily sacrificed in the name of the whole Israelitish people upon the great altar, the first at dawn of day, and the second at evening (Dan. 9:21), or more correctly, "between the two evenings." (See SACRIFICE.)

Dale, the king's - the name of a valley, the alternative for "the valley of Shaveh" (q.v.), near the Dead Sea, where the king of Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14:17). Some have identified it with the southern part of the valley of Jehoshaphat, where Absalom reared his family monument (2 Sam. 18:18).

Dalmanutha - a place on the west of the Sea of Galilee, mentioned only in Mark 8:10. In the parallel passage it is said that Christ came "into the borders of Magdala" (Matt. 15:39). It is plain, then, that Dalmanutha was near Magdala, which was probably the Greek name of one of the many Migdols (i.e., watch-towers) on the western side of the lake of Gennesaret. It has been identified in the ruins of a village about a mile from Magdala, in the little open valley of 'Ain-el-Barideh, "the cold fountain," called el-Mejdel, possibly the "Migdal-el" of Josh. 19:38.

Dalmatia - a mountainous country on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, a part of the Roman province of Illyricum. It still bears its ancient name. During Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Titus left him to visit Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4:10) for some unknown purpose. Paul had himself formerly preached in that region (Rom. 15:19).

The present Emperor of Austria bears, among his other titles, that of "King of Dalmatia."

Damaris - a heifer, an Athenian woman converted to Christianity under the preaching of Paul (Acts 17:34). Some have supposed that she may have been the wife of Dionysius the Areopagite.

Damascus - activity, the most ancient of Oriental cities; the capital of Syria (Isa. 7:8; 17:3); situated about 133 miles to the north of Jerusalem. Its modern name is Esh-Sham; i.e., "the East."

The situation of this city is said to be the most beautiful of all Western Asia. It is mentioned among the conquests of the Egyptian king Thothmes III. (B.C. 1500), and in the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400).

It is first mentioned in Scripture in connection with Abraham's victory over the confederate kings under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:15). It was the native place of Abraham's steward (15:2). It is not again noticed till the time of David, when "the Syrians of Damascus came to succour Hadadezer" (q.v.), 2 Sam. 8:5; 1 Chr. 18:5. In the reign of Solomon, Rezon became leader of a band who revolted from Hadadezer (1 Kings 11:23), and betaking themselves to Damascus, settled there and made their leader king. There was a long war, with varying success, between the Israelites and Syrians, who at a later period became allies of Israel against Judah (2 Kings 15:37).

The Syrians were at length subdued by the Assyrians, the city of Damascus was taken and destroyed, and the inhabitants carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings 16:7-9; comp. Isa. 7:8). In this, prophecy was fulfilled (Isa. 17:1; Amos 1:4; Jer. 49:24). The kingdom of Syria remained a province of Assyria till the capture of Nineveh by the Medes (B.C. 625), when it fell under the conquerors. After passing through various vicissitudes, Syria was invaded by the Romans (B.C. 64), and Damascus became the seat of the government of the province. In A.D. 37 Aretas, the king of Arabia, became master of Damascus, having driven back Herod Antipas.

This city is memorable as the scene of Saul's conversion (Acts 9:1-25). The street called "Straight," in which Judas lived, in whose house Saul was found by Ananias, is known by the name Sultany, or "Queen's Street." It is the principal street of the city. Paul visited Damascus again on his return from Arabia (Gal. 1:16, 17). Christianity was planted here as a centre (Acts 9:20), from which it spread to the surrounding regions.

In A.D. 634 Damascus was conquered by the growing Mohammedan power. In A.D. 1516 it fell under the dominion of the Turks, its present rulers. It is now the largest city in Asiatic Turkey. Christianity has again found a firm footing within its walls.

Damnation - in Rom. 13:2, means "condemnation," which comes on those who withstand God's ordinance of magistracy. This sentence of condemnation comes not from the magistrate, but from God, whose authority is thus resisted.

In 1 Cor. 11:29 (R.V., "judgment") this word means condemnation, in the sense of exposure to severe temporal judgements from God, as the following verse explains.

In Rom. 14:23 the word "damned" means "condemned" by one's own conscience, as well as by the Word of God. The apostle shows here that many things which are lawful are not expedient; and that in using our Christian liberty the question should not simply be, Is this course I follow lawful? but also, Can I follow it without doing injury to the spiritual interests of a brother in Christ? He that "doubteth", i.e., is not clear in his conscience as to "meats", will violate his conscience "if he eat," and in eating is condemned; and thus one ought not so to use his liberty as to lead one who is "weak" to bring upon himself this condemnation.

Dan - a judge. (1.) The fifth son of Jacob. His mother was Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. 30:6, "God hath judged me", Heb. dananni). The blessing pronounced on him by his father was, "Dan shall judge his people" (49:16), probably in allusion to the judgeship of Samson, who was of the tribe of Dan.

The tribe of Dan had their place in the march through the wilderness on the north side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:25, 31; 10:25). It was the last of the tribes to receive a portion in the Land of Promise. Its position and extent are described in Josh. 19:40-48.

The territory of Dan extended from the west of that of Ephraim and Benjamin to the sea. It was a small territory, but was very fertile. It included in it, among others, the cities of Lydda, Ekron, and Joppa, which formed its northern boundary. But this district was too limited. "Squeezed into the narrow strip between the mountains and the sea, its energies were great beyond its numbers." Being pressed by the Amorites and the Philistines, whom they were unable to conquer, they longed for a wider space. They accordingly sent out five spies from two of their towns, who went north to the sources of the Jordan, and brought back a favourable report regarding that region. "Arise," they said, "be not slothful to go, and to possess the land," for it is "a place where there is no want of any thing that is in the earth" (Judg. 18:10). On receiving this report, 600 Danites girded on their weapons of war, and taking with them their wives and their children, marched to the foot of Hermon, and fought against Leshem, and took it from the Sidonians, and dwelt therein, and changed the name of the conquered town to Dan (Josh. 19:47). This new city of Dan became to them a new home, and was wont to be spoken of as the northern limit of Palestine, the length of which came to be denoted by the expression "from Dan to Beersheba", i.e., about 144 miles.

"But like Lot under a similar temptation, they seem to have succumbed to the evil influences around them, and to have sunk down into a condition of semi-heathenism from which they never emerged. The mounds of ruins which mark the site of the city show that it covered a considerable extent of ground. But there remains no record of any noble deed wrought by the degenerate tribe. Their name disappears from the roll-book of the natural and the spiritual Israel.", Manning's Those Holy Fields.

This old border city was originally called Laish. Its modern name is Tell el-Kady, "Hill of the Judge." It stands about four miles below Caesarea Philippi, in the midst of a region of surpassing richness and beauty.

(2.) This name occurs in Ezek 27:19, Authorize Version; but the words there, "Dan also," should be simply, as in the Revised Version, "Vedan," an Arabian city, from which various kinds of merchandise were brought to Tyre. Some suppose it to have been the city of Aden in Arabia. (See MAHANEH-DAN ¯T0002375.)

Dance - found in Judg. 21:21, 23; Ps. 30:11; 149:3; 150:4; Jer. 31:4, 13, etc., as the translation of hul, which points to the whirling motion of Oriental sacred dances. It is the rendering of a word (rakad') which means to skip or leap for joy, in Eccl. 3:4; Job 21:11; Isa. 13:21, etc.

In the New Testament it is in like manner the translation of different Greek words, circular motion (Luke 15:25); leaping up and down in concert (Matt. 11:17), and by a single person (Matt. 14:6).

It is spoken of as symbolical of rejoicing (Eccl. 3:4. Comp. Ps. 30:11; Matt. 11: 17). The Hebrews had their sacred dances expressive of joy and thanksgiving, when the performers were usually females (Ex. 15:20; 1 Sam. 18:6).

The ancient dance was very different from that common among Western nations. It was usually the part of the women only (Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; comp. 5:1). Hence the peculiarity of David's conduct in dancing before the ark of the Lord (2 Sam. 6:14). The women took part in it with their timbrels. Michal should, in accordance with the example of Miriam and others, have herself led the female choir, instead of keeping aloof on the occasion and "looking through the window." David led the choir "uncovered", i.e., wearing only the ephod or linen tunic. He thought only of the honour of God, and forgot himself.

From being reserved for occasions of religious worship and festivity, it came gradually to be practised in common life on occasions of rejoicing (Jer. 31:4). The sexes among the Jews always danced separately. The daughter of Herodias danced alone (Matt. 14:6).

Daniel - God is my judge, or judge of God. (1.) David's second son, "born unto him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess" (1 Chr. 3:1). He is called also Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3).

(2.) One of the four great prophets, although he is not once spoken of in the Old Testament as a prophet. His life and prophecies are recorded in the Book of Daniel. He was descended from one of the noble families of Judah (Dan. 1:3), and was probably born in Jerusalem about B.C. 623, during the reign of Josiah. At the first deportation of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (the kingdom of Israel had come to an end nearly a century before), or immediately after his victory over the Egyptians at the second battle of Carchemish, in the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (B.C. 606), Daniel and other three noble youths were carried off to Babylon, along with part of the vessels of the temple. There he was obliged to enter into the service of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with the custom of the age received the Chaldean name of Belteshazzar, i.e., "prince of Bel," or "Bel protect the king!" His residence in Babylon was very probably in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identified with a mass of shapeless mounds called the Kasr, on the right bank of the river.

His training in the schools of the wise men in Babylon (Dan. 1:4) was to fit him for service to the empire. He was distinguished during this period for his piety and his stict observance of the Mosaic law (1:8-16), and gained the confidence and esteem of those who were over him. His habit of attention gained during his education in Jerusalem enabled him soon to master the wisdom and learning of the Chaldeans, and even to excel his compeers.

At the close of his three years of discipline and training in the royal schools, Daniel was distinguished for his proficiency in the "wisdom" of his day, and was brought out into public life. He soon became known for his skill in the interpretation of dreams (1:17; 2:14), and rose to the rank of governor of the province of Babylon, and became "chief of the governors" (Chald. Rab-signin) over all the wise men of Babylon. He made known and also interpreted Nebuchadnezzar's dream; and many years afterwards, when he was now an old man, amid the alarm and consternation of the terrible night of Belshazzar's impious feast, he was called in at the instance of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysterious handwriting on the wall. He was rewarded with a purple robe and elevation to the rank of "third ruler." The place of "second ruler" was held by Belshazzar as associated with his father, Nabonidus, on the throne (5:16). Daniel interpreted the handwriting, and "in that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain."

After the taking of Babylon, Cyrus, who was now master of all Asia from India to the Dardanelles, placed Darius (q.v.), a Median prince, on the throne, during the two years of whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the "three presidents" of the empire, and was thus practically at the head of affairs, no doubt interesting himself in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom he had at last the happiness of seeing restored to their own land, although he did not return with them, but remained still in Babylon. His fidelity to God exposed him to persecution, and he was cast into a den of lions, but was miraculously delivered; after which Darius issued a decree enjoining reverence for "the God of Daniel" (6:26). He "prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian," whom he probably greatly influenced in the matter of the decree which put an end to the Captivity (B.C. 536).

He had a series of prophetic visions vouch-safed to him which opened up the prospect of a glorious future for the people of God, and must have imparted peace and gladness to his spirit in his old age as he waited on at his post till the "end of the days." The time and circumstances of his death are not recorded. He probably died at Susa, about eighty-five years of age.

Ezekiel, with whom he was contemporary, mentions him as a pattern of righteousness (14:14, 20) and wisdom (28:3). (See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.)

Daniel, Book of - is ranked by the Jews in that division of their Bible called the Hagiographa (Heb. Khethubim). (See BIBLE.) It consists of two distinct parts. The first part, consisting of the first six chapters, is chiefly historical; and the second part, consisting of the remaining six chapters, is chiefly prophetical.

The historical part of the book treats of the period of the Captivity. Daniel is "the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to intervene between Kings and Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword carried he [i.e., Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia'" (2 Chr. 36:20).

The prophetical part consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetical communication.

The genuineness of this book has been much disputed, but the arguments in its favour fully establish its claims. (1.) We have the testimony of Christ (Matt. 24:15; 25:31; 26:64) and his apostles (1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for its authority; and (2) the important testimony of Ezekiel (14:14, 20; 28:3). (3.) The character and records of the book are also entirely in harmony with the times and circumstances in which the author lived. (4.) The linguistic character of the book is, moreover, just such as might be expected. Certain portions (Dan. 2:4; 7) are written in the Chaldee language; and the portions written in Hebrew are in a style and form having a close affinity with the later books of the Old Testament, especially with that of Ezra. The writer is familiar both with the Hebrew and the Chaldee, passing from the one to the other just as his subject required. This is in strict accordance with the position of the author and of the people for whom his book was written. That Daniel is the writer of this book is also testified to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2; 9:2; 10:1, 2; 12:4, 5). (See BELSHAZZAR.)

Dan-jaan - woodland Dan, a place probably somewhere in the direction of Dan, near the sources of the Jordan (2 Sam. 24:6). The LXX. and the Vulgate read "Dan-ja'ar", i.e., "Dan in the forest."

Dannah - murmuring, a city (Josh. 15:49) in the mountains of Judah about 8 miles south-west of Hebron.

Darda - pearl of wisdom, one of the four who were noted for their wisdom, but whom Solomon excelled (1 Kings 4:31).

Daric - in the Revised Version of 1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72, where the Authorized Version has "dram." It is the rendering of the Hebrew darkemon and the Greek dareikos. It was a gold coin, bearing the figure of a Persian King with his crown and armed with bow and arrow. It was current among the Jews after their return from Babylon, i.e., while under the Persian domination. It weighed about 128 grains troy, and was of the value of about one guinea or rather more of our money. It is the first coin mentioned in Scripture, and is the oldest that history makes known to us.

Darius - the holder or supporter, the name of several Persian kings. (1.) Darius the Mede (Dan. 11:1), "the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes" (9:1). On the death of Belshazzar the Chaldean he "received the kingdom" of Babylon as viceroy from Cyrus. During his brief reign (B.C. 538-536) Daniel was promoted to the highest dignity (Dan. 6:1, 2); but on account of the malice of his enemies he was cast into the den of lions. After his miraculous escape, a decree was issued by Darius enjoining "reverence for the God of Daniel" (6:26). This king was probably the "Astyages" of the Greek historians. Nothing can, however, be with certainty affirmed regarding him. Some are of opinion that the name "Darius" is simply a name of office, equivalent to "governor," and that the "Gobryas" of the inscriptions was the person intended by the name.

(2.) Darius, king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, of the royal family of the Achaemenidae. He did not immediately succeed Cyrus on the throne. There were two intermediate kings, viz., Cambyses (the Ahasuerus of Ezra), the son of Cyrus, who reigned from B.C. 529-522, and was succeeded by a usurper named Smerdis, who occupied the throne only ten months, and was succeeded by this Darius (B.C. 521-486). Smerdis was a Margian, and therefore had no sympathy with Cyrus and Cambyses in the manner in which they had treated the Jews. He issued a decree prohibiting the restoration of the temple and of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:17-22). But soon after his death and the accession of Darius, the Jews resumed their work, thinking that the edict of Smerdis would be now null and void, as Darius was in known harmony with the religious policy of Cyrus. The enemies of the Jews lost no time in bringing the matter under the notice of Darius, who caused search to be made for the decree of Cyrus (q.v.). It was not found at Babylon, but at Achmetha (Ezra 6:2); and Darius forthwith issued a new decree, giving the Jews full liberty to prosecute their work, at the same time requiring the Syrian satrap and his subordinates to give them all needed help. It was with the army of this king that the Greeks fought the famous battle of Marathon (B.C. 490). During his reign the Jews enjoyed much peace and prosperity. He was succeeded by Ahasuerus, known to the Greeks as Xerxes, who reigned for twenty-one years.

(3.) Darius the Persian (Neh. 12:22) was probably the Darius II. (Ochus or Nothus) of profane history, the son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who was the son and successor of Ahasuerus (Xerxes). There are some, however, who think that the king here meant was Darius III. (Codomannus), the antagonist of Alexander the Great (B.C. 336-331).

Darkness - The plague (the ninth) of darkness in Egypt (Ex. 10:21) is described as darkness "which may be felt." It covered "all the land of Egypt," so that "they saw not one another." It did not extend to the land of Goshen (ver. 23).

When Jesus hung upon the cross (Matt. 27:45; Luke 23:44), from the "sixth hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour."

On Mount Sinai, Moses (Ex. 20:21) "drew near unto the thick darkness where God was." This was the "thick cloud upon the mount" in which Jehovah was when he spake unto Moses there. The Lord dwelt in the cloud upon the mercy-seat (1 Kings 8:12), the cloud of glory. When the psalmist (Ps. 97:2) describes the inscrutable nature of God's workings among the sons of men, he says, "Clouds and darkness are round about him." God dwells in thick darkness.

Darkness (Isa. 13:9, 10; Matt. 24:29) also is a symbol of the judgments that attend on the coming of the Lord. It is a symbol of misery and adversity (Job 18:6; Ps. 107:10; Isa. 8:22; Ezek. 30:18). The "day of darkness" in Joel 2:2, caused by clouds of locusts, is a symbol of the obscurity which overhangs all divine proceedings. "Works of darkness" are impure actions (Eph. 5:11). "Outer darkness" refers to the darkness of the streets in the East, which are never lighted up by any public or private lamps after nightfall, in contrast with the blaze of cheerful light in the house. It is also a symbol of ignorance (Isa. 9:2; 60:2; Matt. 6:23) and of death (Job 10:21; 17:13).

Darling - Ps. 22:20; 35:17) means an "only one."

Dart - an instrument of war; a light spear. "Fiery darts" (Eph. 6:16) are so called in allusion to the habit of discharging darts from the bow while they are on fire or armed with some combustible material. Arrows are compared to lightning (Deut. 32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 120:4).

Date - the fruit of a species of palm (q.v.), the Phoenix dactilifera. This was a common tree in Palestine (Joel 1:12; Neh. 8:15). Palm branches were carried by the Jews on festive occasions, and especially at the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40; Neh. 8:15).

Dathan - welled; belonging to a fountain, a son of Eliab, a Reubenite, who joined Korah (q.v.) in his conspiracy, and with his accomplices was swallowed up by an earthquake (Num. 16:1; 26:9; Deut. 11:6; Ps. 106:17).

Daughter - This word, besides its natural and proper sense, is used to designate, (1.) A niece or any female descendant (Gen. 20:12; 24:48; 28:6). (2.) Women as natives of a place, or as professing the religion of a place; as, "the daughters of Zion" (Isa. 3:16), "daughters of the Philistines" (2 Sam. 1:20). (3.) Small towns and villages lying around a city are its "daughters," as related to the metropolis or mother city. Tyre is in this sense called the daughter of Sidon (Isa. 23:12). (4.) The people of Jerusalem are spoken of as "the daughters of Zion" (Isa. 37:22). (5.) The daughters of a tree are its boughs (Gen. 49:22). (6.) The "daughters of music" (Eccl. 12:4) are singing women.

David - beloved, the eighth and youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother's name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of 2 Sam. 17:25. As to his personal appearance, we only know that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face (1 Sam. 16:12; 17:42).

His early occupation was that of tending his father's sheep on the uplands of Judah. From what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time, when thus engaged, with his shepherd's flute, while he drank in the many lessons taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. His first recorded exploits were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when they came out against his flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his club (1 Sam. 17:34, 35).

While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction (1 Sam. 16:1-13). There he offered up sacrifice, and called the elders of Israel and Jesse's family to the sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for, and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil. David went back again to his shepherd life, but "the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit of the Lord departed from Saul" (1 Sam. 16:13, 14).

Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played before the king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to Bethlehem. But he soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father with provisions for his three brothers, who were then fighting on the side of the king. On his arrival in the camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was made aware of the state of matters when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a stone "out of the brook," which struck the giant's forehead, so that he fell senseless to the ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his head with his own sword (1 Sam. 17). The result was a great victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the gates of Gath and Ekron.

David's popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul's jealousy (1 Sam. 18:6-16), which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Sam. 18-30). The deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David "prospered exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul's son, between whom and David a life-long warm friendship was formed.

A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah (1 Sam. 19:12-18) to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who were there under Samuel's training. It is supposed by some that the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort to bring his father to a better state of mind toward David (1 Sam. 20), who, being made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight to a distance. We accordingly find him first at Nob (21:1-9) and then at Gath, the chief city of the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit him into his service, as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now betook himself to the stronghold of Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chr. 12:8-18). Here in a short time 400 men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their leader. It was at this time that David, amid the harassment and perils of his position, cried, "Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;" when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed (2 Sam. 23:13-17), but which he would not drink.

In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave orders for the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore a linen ephod", to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Comp. Ps. 52.

Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the Philistines, David with his men relieved it (1 Sam. 23:1-14); and then, for fear of Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Comp. Ps. 31. While encamped there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who spoke to him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now parted never to meet again. Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped from him at this time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea (1 Sam. 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued him with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by what David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him, and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he maintained himself by contributions gathered from the district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal and his wife Abigail (1 Sam. 25), whom David married after Nabal's death.

Saul again went forth (1 Sam. 26) in pursuit of David, who had hid himself "in the hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing shame and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting his elevation to the throne.

Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to place through fear of Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines (1 Sam. 27). He was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. Here David lived among his followers for some time as an independent chief engaged in frequent war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah.

Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the lords of the Philistines were suspicious of David's loyalty, and therefore he was sent back to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites, and completely routed them. On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul's death (2 Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul's crown and bracelet and laid them at his feet. David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy, the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son" (2 Sam. 1:18-27). It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to be taught to the children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them. "Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.).

David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine direction (2 Sam. 2:1-4). There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed as king. He was now about thirty years of age.

But his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul's only remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took place at the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other encounters, however, between Israel and Judah followed (2 Sam. 3:1, 5), but still success was on the side of David. For the space of seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner now sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement; but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39). This was greatly to David's regret. He mourned for the death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth; and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel (4:1-12).

David king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Chr. 11:1-3). The elders of Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his empire. At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the stronghold", on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the Jebusites, and made it Israel's capital, and established here his residence, and afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. The Philistines, who had for some time observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He thus delivered Israel from their enemies.

David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital (2 Sam. 6). It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem, where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines had sent it home (1 Sam. 6; 7). In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was a divine ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark, Num. 4), who had put forth his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three months David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Comp. Ps. 24. Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the purpose. About seventy years had passed since it had stood in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now (1 Chr. 16) carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new religious era began. The service of praise was for the first time introduced into public worship. Zion became henceforth "God's holy hill."

David's wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly extended and strengthened his kingdom (2 Sam. 8). In a few years the whole territory from the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway (2 Sam. 8:3-13; 10).

David's fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a vast empire, and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the sin of adultery (2 Sam. 11:2-27). It has been noted as characteristic of the Bible that while his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore recorded. This crime, in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder. Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the corps of heros (23:39), was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death. Nathan the prophet (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 12:1-23) was sent by God to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual recovery.

Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah's death. Her first-born son died, according to the word of the prophet. She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon, and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Sam. 12:24, 25).

Peace. After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the idea of building a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution, because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan to him with a gracious message (2 Sam. 7:1-16). On receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of the temple was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a man of peace (1 Chr. 22:9; 28:3).

A cloudy evening. Hitherto David's carrer had been one of great prosperity and success. Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Sam. 13). This was the beginning of the disasters of his later years. After two years Absalom terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This brought sore trouble to David's heart. Absalom, afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when he was brought back through the intrigue of Joab (2 Sam. 14).

After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years' famine (2 Sam. 21:1-14). This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a punishment for David's sinful pride in numbering the people (2 Sam. 24), in which no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space of three days.

Rebellion of Absalom. The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census, and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the feeling of jealously that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes against David. Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually gained over the people, and at length openly rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne. Ahithophel was Absalom's chief counsellor. The revolt began in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed king. David was now in imminent danger, and he left Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:13-20), and once more became a fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel. The incidents of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of any other day in Old Testament history. David fled with his followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out. After a few weeks the rival armies were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array at the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:1-8). Absalom's army was defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab (9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious son filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief. He "went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept" (33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, "Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" Peace was now restored, and David returned to Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose between the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43). Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there put to death, and so the revolt came to an end.

The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, ten comparatively peaceful years of David's life passed away. During those years he seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor to build (1 Chr. 22; 28; 29), a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and of glory throughout all countries" (22:5). The exciting and laborious life he had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had left him an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was now drawing to its close. A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be his successor. Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the "Fuller's spring," in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of Adonijah's party failed. Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on his father's throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David's last words are a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious covenant promises (2 Sam. 23:1-7).

After a reign of forty years and six months (2 Sam. 5:5; 1 Chr. 3:4) David died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of David." His tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion.

Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the Messiah (1 Sam. 16:13). The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the "Psalms of David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor (about eighty psalms) to the collection. (See PSALMS.)

"The greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He had lived in harmony with both the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy. The nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of its ancient liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to all (2 Sam. 8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried worth. He had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a half at Hebron (2 Sam. 5:5). Israel at his accession had reached the lowest point of national depression; its new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by the Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solomon was already, before his father's death, owned from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red Sea.", Geikie's Hours etc., iii.

David, City of - (1.) David took from the Jebusites the fortress of Mount Zion. He "dwelt in the fort, and called it the city of David" (1 Chr. 11:7). This was the name afterwards given to the castle and royal palace on Mount Zion, as distinguished from Jerusalem generally (1 Kings 3:1; 8:1), It was on the south-west side of Jerusalem, opposite the temple mount, with which it was connected by a bridge over the Tyropoeon valley.

(2) Bethlehem is called the "city of David" (Luke 2:4, 11), because it was David's birth-place and early home (1 Sam. 17:12).

Day - The Jews reckoned the day from sunset to sunset (Lev. 23:32). It was originally divided into three parts (Ps. 55:17). "The heat of the day" (1 Sam. 11:11; Neh. 7:3) was at our nine o'clock, and "the cool of the day" just before sunset (Gen. 3:8). Before the Captivity the Jews divided the night into three watches, (1) from sunset to midnight (Lam. 2:19); (2) from midnight till the cock-crowing (Judg. 7:19); and (3) from the cock-crowing till sunrise (Ex. 14:24). In the New Testament the division of the Greeks and Romans into four watches was adopted (Mark 13:35). (See WATCHES.)

The division of the day by hours is first mentioned in Dan. 3:6, 15; 4:19; 5:5. This mode of reckoning was borrowed from the Chaldeans. The reckoning of twelve hours was from sunrise to sunset, and accordingly the hours were of variable length (John 11:9).

The word "day" sometimes signifies an indefinite time (Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22:5; Heb. 3:8, etc.). In Job 3:1 it denotes a birthday, and in Isa. 2:12, Acts 17:31, and 2 Tim. 1:18, the great day of final judgment.

Day's journey - The usual length of a day's journey in the East, on camel or horseback, in six or eight hours, is about 25 or 30 miles. The "three days' journey" mentioned in Ex. 3:18 is simply a journey which would occupy three days in going and returning.

Daysman - an umpire or arbiter or judge (Job 9:33). This word is formed from the Latin diem dicere, i.e., to fix a day for hearing a cause. Such an one is empowered by mutual consent to decide the cause, and to "lay his hand", i.e., to impose his authority, on both, and enforce his sentence.

Dayspring - (Job 38:12; Luke 1:78), the dawn of the morning; daybreak. (Comp. Isa. 60:1, 2; Mal. 4:2; Rev. 22:16.)

Daystar - which precedes and accompanies the sun-rising. It is found only in 2 Pet. 1:19, where it denotes the manifestation of Christ to the soul, imparting spiritual light and comfort. He is the "bright and morning star" of Rev. 2:28; 22:16. (Comp. Num. 24:17.)

Deacon - Anglicized form of the Greek word diaconos, meaning a "runner," "messenger," "servant." For a long period a feeling of mutual jealousy had existed between the "Hebrews," or Jews proper, who spoke the sacred language of palestine, and the "Hellenists," or Jews of the Grecian speech, who had adopted the Grecian language, and read the Septuagint version of the Bible instead of the Hebrew. This jealousy early appeared in the Christian community. It was alleged by the Hellenists that their widows were overlooked in the daily distribution of alms. This spirit must be checked. The apostles accordingly advised the disciples to look out for seven men of good report, full of the Holy Ghost, and men of practical wisdom, who should take entire charge of this distribution, leaving them free to devote themselves entirely to the spiritual functions of their office (Acts 6:1-6). This was accordingly done. Seven men were chosen, who appear from their names to have been Hellenists. The name "deacon" is nowhere applied to them in the New Testament; they are simply called "the seven" (21:8). Their office was at first secular, but it afterwards became also spiritual; for among other qualifications they must also be "apt to teach" (1 Tim. 3: 8-12). Both Philip and Stephen, who were of "the seven," preached; they did "the work of evangelists."

Deaconess - Rom. 16:1, 3, 12; Phil. 4:2, 3; 1 Tim. 3:11; 5:9, 10; Titus 2:3, 4). In these passages it is evident that females were then engaged in various Christian ministrations. Pliny makes mention of them also in his letter to Trajan (A.D. 110).

Dead Sea - the name given by Greek writers of the second century to that inland sea called in Scripture the "salt sea" (Gen. 14:3; Num. 34:12), the "sea of the plain" (Deut. 3:17), the "east sea" (Ezek. 47:18; Joel 2:20), and simply "the sea" (Ezek. 47:8). The Arabs call it Bahr Lut, i.e., the Sea of Lot. It lies about 16 miles in a straight line to the east of Jerusalem. Its surface is 1,292 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea. It covers an area of about 300 square miles. Its depth varies from 1,310 to 11 feet. From various phenomena that have been observed, its bottom appears to be still subsiding. It is about 53 miles long, and of an average breadth of 10 miles. It has no outlet, the great heat of that region causing such rapid evaporation that its average depth, notwithstanding the rivers that run into it (see JORDAN ¯T0002112), is maintained with little variation. The Jordan alone discharges into it no less than six million tons of water every twenty-four hours.

The waters of the Dead Sea contain 24.6 per cent. of mineral salts, about seven times as much as in ordinary sea-water; thus they are unusually buoyant. Chloride of magnesium is most abundant; next to that chloride of sodium (common salt). But terraces of alluvial deposits in the deep valley of the Jordan show that formerly one great lake extended from the Waters of Merom to the foot of the watershed in the Arabah. The waters were then about 1,400 feet above the present level of the Dead Sea, or slightly above that of the Mediterranean, and at that time were much less salt.

Nothing living can exist in this sea. "The fish carried down by the Jordan at once die, nor can even mussels or corals live in it; but it is a fable that no bird can fly over it, or that there are no living creatures on its banks. Dr. Tristram found on the shores three kinds of kingfishers, gulls, ducks, and grebes, which he says live on the fish which enter the sea in shoals, and presently die. He collected one hundred and eighteen species of birds, some new to science, on the shores, or swimming or flying over the waters. The cane-brakes which fringe it at some parts are the homes of about forty species of mammalia, several of them animals unknown in England; and innumerable tropical or semi-tropical plants perfume the atmosphere wherever fresh water can reach. The climate is perfect and most delicious, and indeed there is perhaps no place in the world where a sanatorium could be established with so much prospect of benefit as at Ain Jidi (Engedi).", Geikie's Hours, etc.

Deal, Tenth - See OMER.

Dearth - a scarcity of provisions (1 Kings 17). There were frequent dearths in Palestine. In the days of Abram there was a "famine in the land" (Gen. 12:10), so also in the days of Jacob (47:4, 13). We read also of dearths in the time of the judges (Ruth 1:1), and of the kings (2 Sam. 21:1; 1 Kings 18:2; 2 Kings 4:38; 8:1).

In New Testament times there was an extensive famine in Palestine (Acts 11:28) in the fourth year of the reign of the emperor Claudius (A.D. 44 and 45).

Death - may be simply defined as the termination of life. It is represented under a variety of aspects in Scripture: (1.) "The dust shall return to the earth as it was" (Eccl. 12:7).

(2.) "Thou takest away their breath, they die" (Ps. 104:29).

(3.) It is the dissolution of "our earthly house of this tabernacle" (2 Cor. 5:1); the "putting off this tabernacle" (2 Pet. 1:13, 14).

(4.) Being "unclothed" (2 Cor. 5:3, 4).

(5.) "Falling on sleep" (Ps. 76:5; Jer. 51:39; Acts 13:36; 2 Pet. 3:9.

(6.) "I go whence I shall not return" (Job 10:21); "Make me to know mine end" (Ps. 39:4); "to depart" (Phil. 1:23).

The grave is represented as "the gates of death" (Job 38:17; Ps. 9:13; 107:18). The gloomy silence of the grave is spoken of under the figure of the "shadow of death" (Jer. 2:6).

Death is the effect of sin (Heb. 2:14), and not a "debt of nature." It is but once (9:27), universal (Gen. 3:19), necessary (Luke 2:28-30). Jesus has by his own death taken away its sting for all his followers (1 Cor. 15:55-57).

There is a spiritual death in trespasses and sins, i.e., the death of the soul under the power of sin (Rom. 8:6; Eph. 2:1, 3; Col. 2:13).

The "second death" (Rev. 2:11) is the everlasting perdition of the wicked (Rev. 21:8), and "second" in respect to natural or temporal death.

THE DEATH OF CHRIST is the procuring cause incidentally of all the blessings men enjoy on earth. But specially it is the procuring cause of the actual salvation of all his people, together with all the means that lead thereto. It does not make their salvation merely possible, but certain (Matt. 18:11; Rom. 5:10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 1:4; 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 2:16; Rom. 8:32-35).

Debir - oracle town; sanctuary. (1.) One of the eleven cities to the west of Hebron, in the highlands of Judah (Josh. 15:49; Judg. 1:11-15). It was originally one of the towns of the Anakim (Josh. 15:15), and was also called Kirjath-sepher (q.v.) and Kirjath-sannah (49). Caleb, who had conquered and taken possession of the town and district of Hebron (Josh. 14:6-15), offered the hand of his daughter to any one who would successfully lead a party against Debir. Othniel, his younger brother (Judg. 1:13; 3:9), achieved the conquest, and gained Achsah as his wife. She was not satisfied with the portion her father gave her, and as she was proceeding toward her new home, she "lighted from off her ass" and said to him, "Give me a blessing [i.e., a dowry]: for thou hast given me a south land" (Josh. 15:19, A.V.); or, as in the Revised Version, "Thou hast set me in the land of the south", i.e., in the Negeb, outside the rich valley of Hebron, in the dry and barren land. "Give me also springs of water. And he gave her the upper springs, and the nether springs."

Debir has been identified with the modern Edh-Dhaheriyeh, i.e., "the well on the ridge", to the south of Hebron.

(2.) A place near the "valley of Achor" (Josh. 15:7), on the north boundary of Judah, between Jerusalem and Jericho.

(3.) The king of Eglon, one of the five Canaanitish kings who were hanged by Joshua (Josh. 10:3, 23) after the victory at Gibeon. These kings fled and took refuge in a cave at Makkedah. Here they were kept confined till Joshua returned from the pursuit of their discomfited armies, when he caused them to be brought forth, and "Joshua smote them, and slew them, and hanged them on five trees" (26).

Deborah - a bee. (1.) Rebekah's nurse. She accompanied her mistress when she left her father's house in Padan-aram to become the wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:59). Many years afterwards she died at Bethel, and was buried under the "oak of weeping", Allon-bachuth (35:8).

(2.) A prophetess, "wife" (woman?) of Lapidoth. Jabin, the king of Hazor, had for twenty years held Israel in degrading subjection. The spirit of patriotism seemed crushed out of the nation. In this emergency Deborah roused the people from their lethargy. Her fame spread far and wide. She became a "mother in Israel" (Judg. 4:6, 14; 5:7), and "the children of Israel came up to her for judgment" as she sat in her tent under the palm tree "between Ramah and Bethel." Preparations were everywhere made by her direction for the great effort to throw off the yoke of bondage. She summoned Barak from Kadesh to take the command of 10,000 men of Zebulun and Naphtali, and lead them to Mount Tabor on the plain of Esdraelon at its north-east end. With his aid she organized this army. She gave the signal for attack, and the Hebrew host rushed down impetuously upon the army of Jabin, which was commanded by Sisera, and gained a great and decisive victory. The Canaanitish army almost wholly perished. That was a great and ever-memorable day in Israel. In Judg. 5 is given the grand triumphal ode, the "song of Deborah," which she wrote in grateful commemoration of that great deliverance. (See LAPIDOTH ¯T0002240, JABIN ¯T0001938 [2].)

Debt - The Mosaic law encouraged the practice of lending (Deut. 15:7; Ps. 37:26; Matt. 5:42); but it forbade the exaction of interest except from foreigners. Usury was strongly condemned (Prov. 28:8; Ezek. 18:8, 13, 17; 22:12; Ps. 15:5). On the Sabbatical year all pecuniary obligations were cancelled (Deut. 15:1-11). These regulations prevented the accumulation of debt.

Debtor - Various regulations as to the relation between debtor and creditor are laid down in the Scriptures.

(1.) The debtor was to deliver up as a pledge to the creditor what he could most easily dispense with (Deut. 24:10, 11).

(2.) A mill, or millstone, or upper garment, when given as a pledge, could not be kept over night (Ex. 22:26, 27).

(3.) A debt could not be exacted during the Sabbatic year (Deut. 15:1-15).

For other laws bearing on this relation see Lev. 25:14, 32, 39; Matt. 18:25, 34.

(4.) A surety was liable in the same way as the original debtor (Prov. 11:15; 17:18).

Decalogue - the name given by the Greek fathers to the ten commandments; "the ten words," as the original is more literally rendered (Ex. 20:3-17). These commandments were at first written on two stone slabs (31:18), which were broken by Moses throwing them down on the ground (32:19). They were written by God a second time (34:1). The decalogue is alluded to in the New Testament five times (Matt. 5:17, 18, 19; Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; Rom. 7:7, 8; 13:9; 1 Tim. 1:9, 10).

These commandments have been divided since the days of Origen the Greek father, as they stand in the Confession of all the Reformed Churches except the Lutheran. The division adopted by Luther, and which has ever since been received in the Lutheran Church, makes the first two commandments one, and the third the second, and so on to the last, which is divided into two. "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house" being ranked as ninth, and "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife," etc., the tenth. (See COMMANDMENTS.)

Decapolis - ten cities=deka, ten, and polis, a city, a district on the east and south-east of the Sea of Galilee containing "ten cities," which were chiefly inhabited by Greeks. It included a portion of Bashan and Gilead, and is mentioned three times in the New Testament (Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20; 7:31).

These cities were Scythopolis, i.e., "city of the Scythians", (ancient Bethshean, the only one of the ten cities on the west of Jordan), Hippos, Gadara, Pella (to which the Christians fled just before the destruction of Jerusalem), Philadelphia (ancient Rabbath-ammon), Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Raphana, and Damascus. When the Romans conquered Syria (B.C. 65) they rebuilt, and endowed with certain privileges, these "ten cities," and the province connected with them they called "Decapolis."

Decision, Valley of - a name given to the valley of Jehoshaphat (q.v.) as the vale of the sentence. The scene of Jehovah's signal inflictions on Zion's enemies (Joel 3:14; marg., "valley of concision or threshing").

Decrees of God - "The decrees of God are his eternal, unchangeable, holy, wise, and sovereign purpose, comprehending at once all things that ever were or will be in their causes, conditions, successions, and relations, and determining their certain futurition. The several contents of this one eternal purpose are, because of the limitation of our faculties, necessarily conceived of by us in partial aspects, and in logical relations, and are therefore styled Decrees." The decree being the act of an infinite, absolute, eternal, unchangeable, and sovereign Person, comprehending a plan including all his works of all kinds, great and small, from the beginning of creation to an unending eternity; ends as well as means, causes as well as effects, conditions and instrumentalities as well as the events which depend upon them, must be incomprehensible by the finite intellect of man. The decrees are eternal (Acts 15:18; Eph. 1:4; 2 Thess. 2:13), unchangeable (Ps. 33:11; Isa. 46:9), and comprehend all things that come to pass (Eph. 1:11; Matt. 10:29, 30; Eph. 2:10; Acts 2:23; 4:27, 28; Ps. 17:13, 14).

The decrees of God are (1) efficacious, as they respect those events he has determined to bring about by his own immediate agency; or (2) permissive, as they respect those events he has determined that free agents shall be permitted by him to effect.

This doctrine ought to produce in our minds "humility, in view of the infinite greatness and sovereignty of God, and of the dependence of man; confidence and implicit reliance upon wisdom, rightenousness, goodness, and immutability of God's purpose."

Dedan - low ground. (1.) A son of Raamah (Gen. 10:7). His descendants are mentioned in Isa. 21:13, and Ezek. 27:15. They probably settled among the sons of Cush, on the north-west coast of the Persian Gulf.

(2.) A son of Jokshan, Abraham's son by Keturah (1 Chr. 1:32). His descendants settled on the Syrian borders about the territory of Edom. They probably led a pastoral life.

Dedanim - the descendants of Dedan, the son of Raamah. They are mentioned in Isa. 21:13 as sending out "travelling companies" which lodged "in the forest of Arabia." They are enumerated also by Ezekiel (27:20) among the merchants who supplied Tyre with precious things.

Dedication, Feast of the - (John 10:22, 42), i.e., the feast of the renewing. It was instituted B.C. 164 to commemorate the purging of the temple after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes (B.C. 167), and the rebuilding of the altar after the Syrian invaders had been driven out by Judas Maccabaeus. It lasted for eight days, beginning on the 25th of the month Chisleu (December), which was often a period of heavy rains (Ezra 10:9, 13). It was an occasion of much rejoicing and festivity.

But there were other dedications of the temple. (1) That of Solomon's temple (1 Kings 8:2; 2 Chr. 5:3); (2) the dedication in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29); and (3) the dedication of the temple after the Captivity (Ezra 6:16).

Deep - used to denote (1) the grave or the abyss (Rom. 10:7; Luke 8:31); (2) the deepest part of the sea (Ps. 69:15); (3) the chaos mentioned in Gen. 1:2; (4) the bottomless pit, hell (Rev. 9:1, 2; 11:7; 20:13).

Degrees, Song of - song of steps, a title given to each of these fifteen psalms, 120-134 inclusive. The probable origin of this name is the circumstance that these psalms came to be sung by the people on the ascents or goings up to Jerusalem to attend the three great festivals (Deut. 16:16). They were well fitted for being sung by the way from their peculiar form, and from the sentiments they express. "They are characterized by brevity, by a key-word, by epanaphora [i.e, repetition], and by their epigrammatic style...More than half of them are cheerful, and all of them hopeful." They are sometimes called "Pilgrim Songs." Four of them were written by David, one (127) by Solomon, and the rest are anonymous.

Dehavites - villagers, one of the Assyrian tribes which Asnapper sent to repopulate Samaria (Ezra 4:9). They were probably a nomad Persian tribe on the east of the Caspian Sea, and near the Sea of Azof.

Delaiah - freed by Jehovah. (1.) The head of the twenty-third division of the priestly order (1 Chr. 24:18).

(2.) A son of Shemaiah, and one of the courtiers to whom Jeremiah's first roll of prophecy was read (Jer. 36:12).

(3.) The head of one of the bands of exiles that returned under Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:60; Neh. 7:62).

Delilah - languishing, a Philistine woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek (Judg. 16:4-20). She was bribed by the "lords of the Philistines" to obtain from Samson the secret of his strength and the means of overcoming it (Judg. 16:4-18). She tried on three occasions to obtain from him this secret in vain. On the fourth occasion she wrung it from him. She made him sleep upon her knees, and then called the man who was waiting to help her; who "cut off the seven locks of his head," and so his "strength went from him." (See SAMSON.)

Deluge - the name given to Noah's flood, the history of which is recorded in Gen. 7 and 8.

It began in the year 2516 B.C., and continued twelve lunar months and ten days, or exactly one solar year.

The cause of this judgment was the corruption and violence that filled the earth in the ninth generation from Adam. God in righteous indignation determined to purge the earth of the ungodly race. Amid a world of crime and guilt there was one household that continued faithful and true to God, the household of Noah. "Noah was a just man and perfect in his generations."

At the command of God, Noah made an ark 300 cubits long, 50 broad, and 30 high. He slowly proceeded with this work during a period of one hundred and twenty years (Gen. 6:3). At length the purpose of God began to be carried into effect. The following table exhibits the order of events as they occurred:

In the six hundredth year of his life Noah is commanded by God to enter the ark, taking with him his wife, and his three sons with their wives (Gen. 7:1-10).

The rain begins on the seventeenth day of the second month (Gen. 7:11-17).

The rain ceases, the waters prevail, fifteen cubits upward (Gen. 7:18-24).

The ark grounds on one of the mountains of Ararat on the seventeenth day of the seventh month, or one hundred and fifty days after the Deluge began (Gen. 8:1-4).

Tops of the mountains visible on the first day of the tenth month (Gen. 8:5).

Raven and dove sent out forty days after this (Gen. 8:6-9).

Dove again sent out seven days afterwards; and in the evening she returns with an olive leaf in her mouth (Gen. 8:10, 11).

Dove sent out the third time after an interval of other seven days, and returns no more (Gen. 8:12).

The ground becomes dry on the first day of the first month of the new year (Gen. 8:13).

Noah leaves the ark on the twenty-seventh day of the second month (Gen. 8:14-19).

The historical truth of the narrative of the Flood is established by the references made to it by our Lord (Matt. 24:37; comp. Luke 17:26). Peter speaks of it also (1 Pet. 3:20; 2 Pet. 2:5). In Isa. 54:9 the Flood is referred to as "the waters of Noah." The Biblical narrative clearly shows that so far as the human race was concerned the Deluge was universal; that it swept away all men living except Noah and his family, who were preserved in the ark; and that the present human race is descended from those who were thus preserved.

Traditions of the Deluge are found among all the great divisions of the human family; and these traditions, taken as a whole, wonderfully agree with the Biblical narrative, and agree with it in such a way as to lead to the conclusion that the Biblical is the authentic narrative, of which all these traditions are more or less corrupted versions. The most remarkable of these traditions is that recorded on tablets prepared by order of Assur-bani-pal, the king of Assyria. These were, however, copies of older records which belonged to somewhere about B.C. 2000, and which formed part of the priestly library at Erech (q.v.), "the ineradicable remembrance of a real and terrible event." (See NOAH ¯T0002741; CHALDEA.)

Demas - a companion and fellow-labourer of Paul during his first imprisonment at Rome (Philemon 1:24; Col. 4:14). It appears, however, that the love of the world afterwards mastered him, and he deserted the apostle (2 Tim. 4:10).

Demetrius - (1.) A silversmith at Ephesus, whose chief occupation was to make "silver shrines for Diana" (q.v.), Acts 19:24,i.e., models either of the temple of Diana or of the statue of the goddess. This trade brought to him and his fellow-craftsmen "no small gain," for these shrines found a ready sale among the countless thousands who came to this temple from all parts of Asia Minor. This traffic was greatly endangered by the progress of the gospel, and hence Demetrius excited the tradesmen employed in the manufacture of these shrines, and caused so great a tumult that "the whole city was filled with confusion."

(2.) A Christian who is spoken of as having "a good report of all men, and of the truth itself" (3 John 1:12).

Demon - See DAEMON.

Den - a lair of wild beasts (Ps. 10:9; 104:22; Job 37:8); the hole of a venomous reptile (Isa. 11:8); a recess for secrecy "in dens and caves of the earth" (Heb. 11:38); a resort of thieves (Matt. 21:13; Mark 11:17). Daniel was cast into "the den of lions" (Dan. 6:16, 17). Some recent discoveries among the ruins of Babylon have brought to light the fact that the practice of punishing offenders against the law by throwing them into a den of lions was common.

Deputy - in 1 Kings 22:47, means a prefect; one set over others. The same Hebrew word is rendered "officer;" i.e., chief of the commissariat appointed by Solomon (1 Kings 4:5, etc.).

In Esther 8:9; 9:3 (R.V., "governor") it denotes a Persian prefect "on this side" i.e., in the region west of the Euphrates. It is the modern word pasha.

In Acts 13:7, 8, 12; 18:12, it denotes a proconsul; i.e., the governor of a Roman province holding his appointment from the senate. The Roman provinces were of two kinds, (1) senatorial and (2) imperial. The appointment of a governor to the former was in the hands of the senate, and he bore the title of proconsul (Gr. anthupatos). The appointment of a governor to the latter was in the hands of the emperor, and he bore the title of propraetor (Gr. antistrategos).

Derbe - a small town on the eastern part of the upland plain of Lycaonia, about 20 miles from Lystra. Paul passed through Derbe on his route from Cilicia to Iconium, on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:1), and probably also on his third journey (18:23; 19:1). On his first journey (14:20, 21) he came to Derbe from the other side; i.e., from Iconium. It was the native place of Gaius, one of Paul's companions (20:4). He did not here suffer persecution (2 Tim. 3:11).

Desert - (1.) Heb. midbar, "pasture-ground;" an open tract for pasturage; a common (Joel 2:22). The "backside of the desert" (Ex. 3:1) is the west of the desert, the region behind a man, as the east is the region in front. The same Hebrew word is rendered "wildernes," and is used of the country lying between Egypt and Palestine (Gen. 21:14, 21; Ex. 4:27; 19:2; Josh. 1:4), the wilderness of the wanderings. It was a grazing tract, where the flocks and herds of the Israelites found pasturage during the whole of their journey to the Promised Land.

The same Hebrew word is used also to denote the wilderness of Arabia, which in winter and early spring supplies good pasturage to the flocks of the nomad tribes than roam over it (1 Kings 9:18).

The wilderness of Judah is the mountainous region along the western shore of the Dead Sea, where David fed his father's flocks (1 Sam. 17:28; 26:2). Thus in both of these instances the word denotes a country without settled inhabitants and without streams of water, but having good pasturage for cattle; a country of wandering tribes, as distinguished from that of a settled people (Isa. 35:1; 50:2; Jer. 4:11). Such, also, is the meaning of the word "wilderness" in Matt. 3:3; 15:33; Luke 15:4.

(2.) The translation of the Hebrew Aribah', "an arid tract" (Isa. 35:1, 6; 40:3; 41:19; 51:3, etc.). The name Arabah is specially applied to the deep valley of the Jordan (the Ghor of the Arabs), which extends from the lake of Tiberias to the Elanitic gulf. While midbar denotes properly a pastoral region, arabah denotes a wilderness. It is also translated "plains;" as "the plains of Jericho" (Josh. 5:10; 2 Kings 25:5), "the plains of Moab" (Num. 22:1; Deut. 34:1, 8), "the plains of the wilderness" (2 Sam. 17:16).

(3.) In the Revised Version of Num. 21:20 the Hebrew word jeshimon is properly rendered "desert," meaning the waste tracts on both shores of the Dead Sea. This word is also rendered "desert" in Ps. 78:40; 106:14; Isa. 43:19, 20. It denotes a greater extent of uncultivated country than the other words so rendered. It is especially applied to the desert of the peninsula of Arabia (Num. 21:20; 23:28), the most terrible of all the deserts with which the Israelites were acquainted. It is called "the desert" in Ex. 23:31; Deut. 11:24. (See JESHIMON.)

(4.) A dry place; hence a desolation (Ps. 9:6), desolate (Lev. 26:34); the rendering of the Hebrew word horbah'. It is rendered "desert" only in Ps. 102:6, Isa. 48:21, and Ezek. 13:4, where it means the wilderness of Sinai.

(5.) This word is the symbol of the Jewish church when they had forsaken God (Isa. 40:3). Nations destitute of the knowledge of God are called a "wilderness" (32:15, midbar). It is a symbol of temptation, solitude, and persecution (Isa. 27:10, midbar_; 33:9, _arabah).

Desire of all nations - (Hag. 2:7), usually interpreted as a title of the Messiah. The Revised Version, however, more correctly renders "the desirable things of all nations;" i.e., the choicest treasures of the Gentiles shall be consecrated to the Lord.

Desolation, Abomination of - (Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14; comp. Luke 21:20), is interpreted of the eagles, the standards of the Roman army, which were an abomination to the Jews. These standards, rising over the site of the temple, were a sign that the holy place had fallen under the idolatrous Romans. The references are to Dan. 9:27. (See ABOMINATION.)

Destroyer - (Ex. 12:23), the agent employed in the killing of the first-born; the destroying angel or messenger of God. (Comp. 2 Kings 19:35; 2 Sam. 24:15, 16; Ps. 78:49; Acts 12:23.)

Destruction - in Job 26:6, 28:22 (Heb. abaddon) is sheol, the realm of the dead.

Destruction, City of - (Isa. 19:18; Heb. Ir-ha-Heres, "city of overthrow," because of the evidence it would present of the overthrow of heathenism), the ideal title of On or Heliopolis (q.v.).

Deuteronomy - In all the Hebrew manuscripts the Pentateuch (q.v.) forms one roll or volume divided into larger and smaller sections called parshioth_ and _sedarim. It is not easy to say when it was divided into five books. This was probably first done by the Greek translators of the book, whom the Vulgate follows. The fifth of these books was called by the Greeks Deuteronomion, i.e., the second law, hence our name Deuteronomy, or a second statement of the laws already promulgated. The Jews designated the book by the two first Hebrew words that occur, _'Elle haddabharim_, i.e., "These are the words." They divided it into eleven parshioth. In the English Bible it contains thirty-four chapters.

It consists chiefly of three discourses delivered by Moses a short time before his death. They were spoken to all Israel in the plains of Moab, in the eleventh month of the last year of their wanderings.

The first discourse (1-4:40) recapitulates the chief events of the last forty years in the wilderness, with earnest exhortations to obedience to the divine ordinances, and warnings against the danger of forsaking the God of their fathers.

The seond discourse (5-26:19) is in effect the body of the whole book. The first address is introductory to it. It contains practically a recapitulation of the law already given by God at Mount Sinai, together with many admonitions and injunctions as to the course of conduct they were to follow when they were settled in Canaan.

The concluding discourse (ch. 27-30) relates almost wholly to the solemn sanctions of the law, the blessings to the obedient, and the curse that would fall on the rebellious. He solemnly adjures them to adhere faithfully to the covenant God had made with them, and so secure for themselves and their posterity the promised blessings.

These addresses to the people are followed by what may be called three appendices, namely (1), a song which God had commanded Moses to write (32:1-47); (2) the blessings he pronounced on the separate tribes (ch. 33); and (3) the story of his death (32:48-52) and burial (ch. 34), written by some other hand, probably that of Joshua.

These farewell addresses of Moses to the tribes of Israel he had so long led in the wilderness "glow in each line with the emotions of a great leader recounting to his contemporaries the marvellous story of their common experience. The enthusiasm they kindle, even to-day, though obscured by translation, reveals their matchless adaptation to the circumstances under which they were first spoken. Confidence for the future is evoked by remembrance of the past. The same God who had done mighty works for the tribes since the Exodus would cover their head in the day of battle with the nations of Palestine, soon to be invaded. Their great lawgiver stands before us, vigorous in his hoary age, stern in his abhorrence of evil, earnest in his zeal for God, but mellowed in all relations to earth by his nearness to heaven. The commanding wisdom of his enactments, the dignity of his position as the founder of the nation and the first of prophets, enforce his utterances. But he touches our deepest emotions by the human tenderness that breathes in all his words. Standing on the verge of life, he speaks as a father giving his parting counsels to those he loves; willing to depart and be with God he has served so well, but fondly lengthening out his last farewell to the dear ones of earth. No book can compare with Deuteronomy in its mingled sublimity and tenderness." Geikie, Hours, etc.

The whole style and method of this book, its tone and its peculiarities of conception and expression, show that it must have come from one hand. That the author was none other than Moses is established by the following considerations: (1.) The uniform tradition both of the Jewish and the Christian Church down to recent times. (2.) The book professes to have been written by Moses (1:1; 29:1; 31:1, 9-11, etc.), and was obviously intended to be accepted as his work. (3.) The incontrovertible testimony of our Lord and his apostles (Matt. 19:7, 8; Mark 10:3, 4; John 5:46, 47; Acts 3:22; 7:37; Rom. 10:19) establishes the same conclusion. (4.) The frequent references to it in the later books of the canon (Josh. 8:31; 1 Kings 2:9; 2 Kings 14:6; 2 Chr. 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh. 8:1; Dan. 9:11, 13) prove its antiquity; and (5) the archaisms found in it are in harmony with the age in which Moses lived. (6.) Its style and allusions are also strikingly consistent with the circumstances and position of Moses and of the people at that time.

This body of positive evidence cannot be set aside by the conjectures and reasonings of modern critics, who contended that the book was somewhat like a forgery, introduced among the Jews some seven or eight centuries after the Exodus.

Devil - (Gr. diabolos), a slanderer, the arch-enemy of man's spiritual interest (Job 1:6; Rev. 2:10; Zech. 3:1). He is called also "the accuser of the brethen" (Rev. 12:10).

In Lev. 17:7 the word "devil" is the translation of the Hebrew sair, meaning a "goat" or "satyr" (Isa. 13:21; 34:14), alluding to the wood-daemons, the objects of idolatrous worship among the heathen.

In Deut. 32:17 and Ps. 106:37 it is the translation of Hebrew shed, meaning lord, and idol, regarded by the Jews as a "demon," as the word is rendered in the Revised Version.

In the narratives of the Gospels regarding the "casting out of devils" a different Greek word (daimon) is used. In the time of our Lord there were frequent cases of demoniacal possession (Matt. 12:25-30; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 4:35; 10:18, etc.).

Dew - "There is no dew properly so called in Palestine, for there is no moisture in the hot summer air to be chilled into dew-drops by the coldness of the night. From May till October rain is unknown, the sun shining with unclouded brightness day after day. The heat becomes intense, the ground hard, and vegetation would perish but for the moist west winds that come each night from the sea. The bright skies cause the heat of the day to radiate very quickly into space, so that the nights are as cold as the day is the reverse, a peculiarity of climate from which poor Jacob suffered thousands of years ago (Gen. 31:40). To this coldness of the night air the indispensable watering of all plant-life is due. The winds, loaded with moisture, are robbed of it as they pass over the land, the cold air condensing it into drops of water, which fall in a gracious rain of mist on every thirsty blade. In the morning the fog thus created rests like a sea over the plains, and far up the sides of the hills, which raise their heads above it like so many islands. At sunrise, however, the scene speedily changes. By the kindling light the mist is transformed into vast snow-white clouds, which presently break into separate masses and rise up the mountain-sides, to disappear in the blue above, dissipated by the increasing heat. These are 'the morning clouds and the early dew that go away' of which Hosea (6:4; 13:3) speaks so touchingly" (Geikie's The Holy Land, etc., i., p. 72). Dew is a source of great fertility (Gen. 27:28; Deut. 33:13; Zech. 8:12), and its withdrawal is regarded as a curse from God (2 Sam. 1:21; 1 Kings 17:1). It is the symbol of a multitude (2 Sam. 17:12; Ps. 110:3); and from its refreshing influence it is an emblem of brotherly love and harmony (Ps. 133:3), and of rich spiritual blessings (Hos. 14:5).

Diadem - the tiara of a king (Ezek. 21:26; Isa. 28:5; 62:3); the turban (Job 29:14). In the New Testament a careful distinction is drawn between the diadem as a badge of royalty (Rev. 12:3; 13:1; 19:12) and the crown as a mark of distinction in private life. It is not known what the ancient Jewish "diadem" was. It was the mark of Oriental sovereigns. (See CROWN.)

Dial - for the measurement of time, only once mentioned in the Bible, erected by Ahaz (2 Kings 20:11; Isa. 38:8). The Hebrew word (ma'aloth) is rendered "steps" in Ex. 20:26, 1 Kings 10:19, and "degrees" in 2 Kings 20:9, 10, 11. The ma'aloth was probably stairs on which the shadow of a column or obelisk placed on the top fell. The shadow would cover a greater or smaller number of steps, according as the sun was low or high.

Probably the sun-dial was a Babylonian invention. Daniel at Babylon (Dan. 3:6) is the first to make mention of the "hour."

Diamond - (1.) A precious gem (Heb. yahalom', in allusion to its hardness), otherwise unknown, the sixth, i.e., the third in the second row, in the breastplate of the high priest, with the name of Naphtali engraven on it (Ex. 28:18; 39:11; R.V. marg., "sardonyx.")

(2.) A precious stone (Heb. shamir', a sharp point) mentioned in Jer. 17:1. From its hardness it was used for cutting and perforating other minerals. It is rendered "adamant" (q.v.) in Ezek. 3:9, Zech. 7:12. It is the hardest and most valuable of precious stones.

Diana - so called by the Romans; called Artemis by the Greeks, the "great" goddess worshipped among heathen nations under various modifications. Her most noted temple was that at Ephesus. It was built outside the city walls, and was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. "First and last it was the work of 220 years; built of shining marble; 342 feet long by 164 feet broad; supported by a forest of columns, each 56 feet high; a sacred museum of masterpieces of sculpture and painting. At the centre, hidden by curtains, within a gorgeous shrine, stood the very ancient image of the goddess, on wood or ebony reputed to have fallen from the sky. Behind the shrine was a treasury, where, as in 'the safest bank in Asia,' nations and kings stored their most precious things. The temple as St. Paul saw it subsisted till A.D. 262, when it was ruined by the Goths" (Acts 19:23-41)., Moule on Ephesians: Introd.

Diblaim - doubled cakes, the mother of Gomer, who was Hosea's wife (Hos. 1:3).

Diblathaim - two cakes, a city of Moab, on the east of the Dead Sea (Num. 33:46; Jer. 48:22).

Dibon - pining; wasting. (1.) A city in Moab (Num. 21:30); called also Dibon-gad (33:45), because it was built by Gad and Dimon (Isa. 15:9). It has been identified with the modern Diban, about 3 miles north of the Arnon and 12 miles east of the Dead Sea. (See Moabite Stone.)

(2.) A city of the tribe of Judah, inhabited after the Captivity (Neh. 11:25); called also Dimonah (Josh. 15:22). It is probably the modern ed-Dheib.

Didymus - (Gr. twin = Heb. Thomas, q.v.), John 11:16; 20:24; 21:2.

Dimnah - dunghill, a city of Zebulun given to the Merarite Levites (Josh. 21:35). In 1 Chr. 6:77 the name "Rimmon" is substituted.

Dinah - judged; vindicated, daughter of Jacob by Leah, and sister of Simeon and Levi (Gen. 30:21). She was seduced by Shechem, the son of Hamor, the Hivite chief, when Jacob's camp was in the neighbourhood of Shechem. This led to the terrible revenge of Simeon and Levi in putting the Shechemites to death (Gen. 34). Jacob makes frequent reference to this deed of blood with abhorrence and regret (Gen. 34:30; 49:5-7). She is mentioned among the rest of Jacob's family that went down into Egypt (Gen. 46:8, 15).

Dine - (Gen. 43:16). It was the custom in Egypt to dine at noon. But it is probable that the Egyptians took their principal meal in the evening, as was the general custom in the East (Luke 14:12).

Dinhabah - robbers' den, an Edomitish city, the capital of king Bela (Gen. 36:32). It is probably the modern Dibdiba, a little north-east of Petra.

Dionysius - the Areopagite, one of Paul's converts at Athens (Acts 17:34).

Diotrephes - Jove-nourished, rebuked by John for his pride (3 John 1:9). He was a Judaizer, prating against John and his fellow-labourers "with malicious words" (7).

Disciple - a scholar, sometimes applied to the followers of John the Baptist (Matt. 9:14), and of the Pharisees (22:16), but principally to the followers of Christ. A disciple of Christ is one who (1) believes his doctrine, (2) rests on his sacrifice, (3) imbibes his spirit, and (4) imitates his example (Matt. 10:24; Luke 14:26, 27, 33; John 6:69).

Dish - for eating from (2 Kings 21:13). Judas dipped his hand with a "sop" or piece of bread in the same dish with our Lord, thereby indicating friendly intimacy (Matt. 26:23). The "lordly dish" in Judg. 5:25 was probably the shallow drinking cup, usually of brass. In Judg. 6:38 the same Hebrew word is rendered "bowl."

The dishes of the tabernacle were made of pure gold (Ex. 25:29; 37:16).

Dishan - antelope, the youngest son of Seir the Horite, head of one of the tribes of Idumaea (Gen. 36:21, 28, 30).

Dispensation - (Gr. oikonomia, "management," "economy"). (1.) The method or scheme according to which God carries out his purposes towards men is called a dispensation. There are usually reckoned three dispensations, the Patriarchal, the Mosaic or Jewish, and the Christian. (See COVENANT ¯T0000916, Administration of.) These were so many stages in God's unfolding of his purpose of grace toward men. The word is not found with this meaning in Scripture.

(2.) A commission to preach the gospel (1 Cor. 9:17; Eph. 1:10; 3:2; Col. 1:25).

Dispensations of Providence are providential events which affect men either in the way of mercy or of judgement.

Dispersion - (Gr. diaspora, "scattered," James 1:1; 1 Pet. 1:1) of the Jews. At various times, and from the operation of divers causes, the Jews were separated and scattered into foreign countries "to the outmost parts of heaven" (Deut. 30:4).

(1.) Many were dispersed over Assyria, Media, Babylonia, and Persia, descendants of those who had been transported thither by the Exile. The ten tribes, after existing as a separate kingdom for two hundred and fifty-five years, were carried captive (B.C. 721) by Shalmaneser (or Sargon), king of Assyria. They never returned to their own land as a distinct people, although many individuals from among these tribes, there can be no doubt, joined with the bands that returned from Babylon on the proclamation of Cyrus.

(2.) Many Jews migrated to Egypt and took up their abode there. This migration began in the days of Solomon (2 Kings 18:21, 24; Isa. 30:7). Alexander the Great placed a large number of Jews in Alexandria, which he had founded, and conferred on them equal rights with the Egyptians. Ptolemy Philadelphus, it is said, caused the Jewish Scriptures to be translated into Greek (the work began B.C. 284), for the use of the Alexandrian Jews. The Jews in Egypt continued for many ages to exercise a powerful influence on the public interests of that country. From Egypt they spread along the coast of Africa to Cyrene (Acts 2:10) and to Ethiopia (8:27).

(3.) After the time of Seleucus Nicator (B.C. 280), one of the captains of Alexander the Great, large numbers of Jews migrated into Syria, where they enjoyed equal rights with the Macedonians. From Syria they found their way into Asia Minor. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria and Asia, removed 3,000 families of Jews from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and planted them in Phrygia and Lydia.

(4.) From Asia Minor many Jews moved into Greece and Macedonia, chiefly for purposes of commerce. In the apostles' time they were found in considerable numbers in all the principal cities.

From the time of Pompey the Great (B.C. 63) numbers of Jews from Palestine and Greece went to Rome, where they had a separate quarter of the city assigned to them. Here they enjoyed considerable freedom.

Thus were the Jews everywhere scattered abroad. This, in the overruling providence of God, ultimately contributed in a great degree toward opening the way for the spread of the gospel into all lands.

Dispersion, from the plain of Shinar. This was occasioned by the confusion of tongues at Babel (Gen. 11:9). They were scattered abroad "every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations" (Gen. 10:5, 20,31).

The tenth chapter of Genesis gives us an account of the principal nations of the earth in their migrations from the plain of Shinar, which was their common residence after the Flood. In general, it may be said that the descendants of Japheth were scattered over the north, those of Shem over the central regions, and those of Ham over the extreme south. The following table shows how the different families were dispersed:

Distaff - (Heb. pelek, a "circle"), the instrument used for twisting threads by a whirl (Prov. 31:19).

Divination - of false prophets (Deut. 18:10, 14; Micah 3:6, 7, 11), of necromancers (1 Sam. 28:8), of the Philistine priests and diviners (1 Sam. 6:2), of Balaam (Josh. 13:22). Three kinds of divination are mentioned in Ezek. 21:21, by arrows, consulting with images (the teraphim), and by examining the entrails of animals sacrificed. The practice of this art seems to have been encouraged in ancient Egypt. Diviners also abounded among the aborigines of Canaan and the Philistines (Isa. 2:6; 1 Sam. 28). At a later period multitudes of magicians poured from Chaldea and Arabia into the land of Israel, and pursued their occupations (Isa. 8:19; 2 Kings 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6). This superstition widely spread, and in the time of the apostles there were "vagabond Jews, exorcists" (Acts 19:13), and men like Simon Magus (Acts 8:9), Bar-jesus (13:6, 8), and other jugglers and impostors (19:19; 2 Tim. 3:13). Every species and degree of this superstition was strictly forbidden by the law of Moses (Ex. 22:18; Lev. 19:26, 31; 20:27; Deut. 18:10, 11).

But beyond these various forms of superstition, there are instances of divination on record in the Scriptures by which God was pleased to make known his will.

(1.) There was divination by lot, by which, when resorted to in matters of moment, and with solemnity, God intimated his will (Josh. 7:13). The land of Canaan was divided by lot (Num. 26:55, 56); Achan's guilt was detected (Josh. 7:16-19), Saul was elected king (1 Sam. 10:20, 21), and Matthias chosen to the apostleship, by the solem lot (Acts 1:26). It was thus also that the scape-goat was determined (Lev. 16:8-10).

(2.) There was divination by dreams (Gen. 20:6; Deut. 13:1, 3; Judg. 7:13, 15; Matt. 1:20; 2:12, 13, 19, 22). This is illustrated in the history of Joseph (Gen. 41:25-32) and of Daniel (2:27; 4:19-28).

(3.) By divine appointment there was also divination by the Urim and Thummim (Num. 27:21), and by the ephod.

(4.) God was pleased sometimes to vouch-safe direct vocal communications to men (Deut. 34:10; Ex. 3:4; 4:3; Deut. 4:14, 15; 1 Kings 19:12). He also communed with men from above the mercy-seat (Ex. 25:22), and at the door of the tabernacle (Ex. 29:42, 43).

(5.) Through his prophets God revealed himself, and gave intimations of his will (2 Kings 13:17; Jer. 51:63, 64).

Divorce - The dissolution of the marriage tie was regulated by the Mosaic law (Deut. 24:1-4). The Jews, after the Captivity, were reguired to dismiss the foreign women they had married contrary to the law (Ezra 10:11-19). Christ limited the permission of divorce to the single case of adultery. It seems that it was not uncommon for the Jews at that time to dissolve the union on very slight pretences (Matt. 5:31, 32; 19:1-9; Mark 10:2-12; Luke 16:18). These precepts given by Christ regulate the law of divorce in the Christian Church.

Dizahab - region of gold, a place in the desert of Sinai, on the western shore of the Elanitic gulf (Deut. 1:1). It is now called Dehab.

Doctor - (Luke 2:46; 5:17; Acts 5:34), a teacher. The Jewish doctors taught and disputed in synagogues, or wherever they could find an audience. Their disciples were allowed to propose to them questions. They assumed the office without any appointment to it. The doctors of the law were principally of the sect of the Pharisees. Schools were established after the destruction of Jerusalem at Babylon and Tiberias, in which academical degrees were conferred on those who passed a certain examination. Those of the school of Tiberias were called by the title "rabbi," and those of Babylon by that of "master."

Dodai - loving, one of David's captains (1 Chr. 27:4). (See DODO ¯T0001053 [2].)

Dodanim - leaders, a race descended from Javan (Gen. 10:4). They are known in profane history as the Dardani, originally inhabiting Illyricum. They were a semi-Pelasgic race, and in the ethnographical table (Gen. 10) they are grouped with the Chittim (q.v.). In 1 Chr. 1:7, they are called Rodanim. The LXX. and the Samaritan Version also read Rhodii, whence some have concluded that the Rhodians, the inhabitants of the island of Rhodes, are meant.

Dodo - amatory; loving. (1.) A descendant of Issachar (Judg. 10:1).

(2.) An Ahohite, father of Eleazar, who was one of David's three heroes (2 Sam. 23:9; 1 Chr. 11:12). He was the same with Dodai mentioned in 1 Chr. 27:4.

(3.) A Bethlehemite, and father of Elhanan, who was one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23:24).

Doeg - fearful, an Edomite, the chief overseer of Saul's flocks (1 Sam. 21:7). At the command of Saul he slew the high priest Ahimelech (q.v.) at Nob, together with all the priests to the number of eighty-five persons. (Comp. Ps. 52, title.)

Dog - frequently mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments. Dogs were used by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses (Isa. 56:10), and for guarding their flocks (Job 30:1). There were also then as now troops of semi-wild dogs that wandered about devouring dead bodies and the offal of the streets (1 Kings 14:11; 16:4; 21:19, 23; 22:38; Ps. 59:6, 14).

As the dog was an unclean animal, the terms "dog," "dog's head," "dead dog," were used as terms of reproach or of humiliation (1 Sam. 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16:9). Paul calls false apostles "dogs" (Phil. 3:2). Those who are shut out of the kingdom of heaven are also so designated (Rev. 22:15). Persecutors are called "dogs" (Ps. 22:16). Hazael's words, "Thy servant which is but a dog" (2 Kings 8:13), are spoken in mock humility=impossible that one so contemptible as he should attain to such power.

Doleful creatures - (occurring only Isa. 13:21. Heb. ochim, i.e., "shrieks;" hence "howling animals"), a general name for screech owls (howlets), which occupy the desolate palaces of Babylon. Some render the word "hyaenas."

Door-keeper - This word is used in Ps. 84:10 (R.V. marg., "stand at the threshold of," etc.), but there it signifies properly "sitting at the threshold in the house of God." The psalmist means that he would rather stand at the door of God's house and merely look in, than dwell in houses where iniquity prevailed.

Persons were appointed to keep the street door leading into the interior of the house (John 18:16, 17; Acts 12:13). Sometimes females held this post.

Door-posts - The Jews were commanded to write the divine name on the posts (mezuzoth') of their doors (Deut. 6:9). The Jews, misunderstanding this injunction, adopted the custom of writing on a slip of parchment these verses (Deut. 6:4-9, and 11:13-21), which they enclosed in a reed or cylinder and fixed on the right-hand door-post of every room in the house.

Doors - moved on pivots of wood fastened in sockets above and below (Prov. 26:14). They were fastened by a lock (Judg. 3:23, 25; Cant. 5:5) or by a bar (Judg. 16:3; Job 38:10). In the interior of Oriental houses, curtains were frequently used instead of doors.

The entrances of the tabernacle had curtains (Ex. 26:31-33, 36). The "valley of Achor" is called a "door of hope," because immediately after the execution of Achan the Lord said to Joshua, "Fear not," and from that time Joshua went forward in a career of uninterrupted conquest. Paul speaks of a "door opened" for the spread of the gospel (1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 2:12; Col. 4:3). Our Lord says of himself, "I am the door" (John 10:9). John (Rev. 4:1) speaks of a "door opened in heaven."

Dophkah - knocking, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 33:12). It was in the desert of Sin, on the eastern shore of the western arm of the Red Sea, somewhere in the Wady Feiran.

Dor - dwelling, the Dora of the Romans, an ancient royal city of the Canaanites (Josh. 11:1, 2; 12:23). It was the most southern settlement of the Phoenicians on the coast of Syria. The original inhabitants seem never to have been expelled, although they were made tributary by David. It was one of Solomon's commissariat districts (Judg. 1:27; 1 Kings 4:11). It has been identified with Tantura (so named from the supposed resemblance of its tower to a tantur, i.e., "a horn"). This tower fell in 1895, and nothing remains but debris and foundation walls, the remains of an old Crusading fortress. It is about 8 miles north of Caesarea, "a sad and sickly hamlet of wretched huts on a naked sea-beach."

Dorcas - a female antelope, or gazelle, a pious Christian widow at Joppa whom Peter restored to life (Acts 9:36-41). She was a Hellenistic Jewess, called Tabitha by the Jews and Dorcas by the Greeks.

Dothan - two wells, a famous pasture-ground where Joseph found his brethren watching their flocks. Here, at the suggestion of Judah, they sold him to the Ishmaelite merchants (Gen. 37:17). It is mentioned on monuments in B.C. 1600.

It was the residence of Elisha (2 Kings 6:13), and the scene of a remarkable vision of chariots and horses of fire surrounding the mountain on which the city stood. It is identified with the modern Tell-Dothan, on the south side of the plain of Jezreel, about 12 miles north of Samaria, among the hills of Gilboa. The "two wells" are still in existence, one of which bears the name of the "pit of Joseph" (Jubb Yusuf).

Dough - (batsek, meaning "swelling," i.e., in fermentation). The dough the Israelites had prepared for baking was carried away by them out of Egypt in their kneading-troughs (Ex. 12:34, 39). In the process of baking, the dough had to be turned (Hos. 7:8).

Dove - In their wild state doves generally build their nests in the clefts of rocks, but when domesticated "dove-cots" are prepared for them (Cant. 2:14; Jer. 48:28; Isa. 60:8). The dove was placed on the standards of the Assyrians and Babylonians in honour, it is supposed, of Semiramis (Jer. 25:38; Vulg., "fierceness of the dove;" comp. Jer. 46:16; 50:16). Doves and turtle-doves were the only birds that could be offered in sacrifice, as they were clean according to the Mosaic law (Ge. 15:9; Lev. 5:7; 12:6; Luke 2:24). The dove was the harbinger of peace to Noah (Gen. 8:8, 10). It is often mentioned as the emblem of purity (Ps. 68:13). It is a symbol of the Holy Spirit (Gen. 1:2; Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32); also of tender and devoted affection (Cant. 1:15; 2:14). David in his distress wished that he had the wings of a dove, that he might fly away and be at rest (Ps. 55:6-8). There is a species of dove found at Damascus "whose feathers, all except the wings, are literally as yellow as gold" (68:13).

Dove's dung - (2 Kings 6:25) has been generally understood literally. There are instances in history of the dung of pigeons being actually used as food during a famine. Compare also the language of Rabshakeh to the Jews (2 Kings 18:27; Isa. 36:12). This name, however, is applied by the Arabs to different vegetable substances, and there is room for the opinion of those who think that some such substance is here referred to, as, e.g., the seeds of a kind of millet, or a very inferior kind of pulse, or the root of the ornithogalum, i.e., bird-milk, the star-of-Bethlehem.

Dowry - (mohar; i.e., price paid for a wife, Gen. 34:12; Ex. 22:17; 1 Sam. 18:25), a nuptial present; some gift, as a sum of money, which the bridegroom offers to the father of his bride as a satisfaction before he can receive her. Jacob had no dowry to give for his wife, but he gave his services (Gen. 29:18; 30:20; 34:12).

Dragon - (1.) Heb. tannim, plural of tan. The name of some unknown creature inhabiting desert places and ruins (Job 30:29; Ps. 44:19; Isa. 13:22; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 10:22; Micah 1:8; Mal. 1:3); probably, as translated in the Revised Version, the jackal (q.v.).

(2.) Heb. tannin. Some great sea monster (Jer. 51:34). In Isa. 51:9 it may denote the crocodile. In Gen. 1:21 (Heb. plural tanninim) the Authorized Version renders "whales," and the Revised Version "sea monsters." It is rendered "serpent" in Ex. 7:9. It is used figuratively in Ps. 74:13; Ezek. 29:3.

In the New Testament the word "dragon" is found only in Rev. 12:3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, etc., and is there used metaphorically of "Satan." (See WHALE.)

Dragon well - (Neh. 2:13), supposed by some to be identical with the Pool of Gihon.

Dram - The Authorized Version understood the word 'adarkonim (1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), and the similar word darkomnim (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70), as equivalent to the Greek silver coin the drachma. But the Revised Version rightly regards it as the Greek dareikos, a Persian gold coin (the daric) of the value of about 1 pound, 2s., which was first struck by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and was current in Western Asia long after the fall of the Persian empire. (See DARIC.)

Draught-house - (2 Kings 10:27). Jehu ordered the temple of Baal to be destroyed, and the place to be converted to the vile use of receiving offal or ordure. (Comp. Matt. 15:17.)

Drawer of water - (Deut. 29:11; Josh. 9:21, 23), a servile employment to which the Gibeonites were condemned.

Dream - God has frequently made use of dreams in communicating his will to men. The most remarkable instances of this are recorded in the history of Jacob (Gen. 28:12; 31:10), Laban (31:24), Joseph (37:9-11), Gideon (Judg. 7), and Solomon (1 Kings 3:5). Other significant dreams are also recorded, such as those of Abimelech (Gen. 20:3-7), Pharaoh's chief butler and baker (40:5), Pharaoh (41:1-8), the Midianites (Judg. 7:13), Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 2:1; 4:10, 18), the wise men from the east (Matt. 2:12), and Pilate's wife (27:19).

To Joseph "the Lord appeared in a dream," and gave him instructions regarding the infant Jesus (Matt. 1:20; 2:12, 13, 19). In a vision of the night a "man of Macedonia" stood before Paul and said, "Come over into Macedonia and help us" (Acts 16:9; see also 18:9; 27:23).

Dredge - (Job 24:6). See CORN.

Dregs - (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 22), the lees of wine which settle at the bottom of the vessel.

Dress - (1.) Materials used. The earliest and simplest an apron of fig-leaves sewed together (Gen. 3:7); then skins of animals (3:21). Elijah's dress was probably the skin of a sheep (2 Kings 1:8). The Hebrews were early acquainted with the art of weaving hair into cloth (Ex. 26:7; 35:6), which formed the sackcloth of mourners. This was the material of John the Baptist's robe (Matt. 3:4). Wool was also woven into garments (Lev. 13:47; Deut. 22:11; Ezek. 34:3; Job 31:20; Prov. 27:26). The Israelites probably learned the art of weaving linen when they were in Egypt (1 Chr. 4:21). Fine linen was used in the vestments of the high priest (Ex. 28:5), as well as by the rich (Gen. 41:42; Prov. 31:22; Luke 16:19). The use of mixed material, as wool and flax, was forbidden (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:11).

(2.) Colour. The prevailing colour was the natural white of the material used, which was sometimes rendered purer by the fuller's art (Ps. 104:1, 2; Isa. 63:3; Mark 9:3). The Hebrews were acquainted with the art of dyeing (Gen. 37:3, 23). Various modes of ornamentation were adopted in the process of weaving (Ex. 28:6; 26:1, 31; 35:25), and by needle-work (Judg. 5:30; Ps. 45:13). Dyed robes were imported from foreign countries, particularly from Phoenicia (Zeph. 1:8). Purple and scarlet robes were the marks of the wealthy (Luke 16:19; 2 Sam. 1:24).

(3.) Form. The robes of men and women were not very much different in form from each other.

(a) The "coat" (kethoneth), of wool, cotton, or linen, was worn by both sexes. It was a closely-fitting garment, resembling in use and form our shirt (John 19:23). It was kept close to the body by a girdle (John 21:7). A person wearing this "coat" alone was described as naked (1 Sam. 19:24; Isa. 20:2; 2 Kings 6:30; John 21:7); deprived of it he would be absolutely naked.

(b) A linen cloth or wrapper (sadin) of fine linen, used somewhat as a night-shirt (Mark 14:51). It is mentioned in Judg. 14:12, 13, and rendered there "sheets."

(c) An upper tunic (meil), longer than the "coat" (1 Sam. 2:19; 24:4; 28:14). In 1 Sam. 28:14 it is the mantle in which Samuel was enveloped; in 1 Sam. 24:4 it is the "robe" under which Saul slept. The disciples were forbidden to wear two "coats" (Matt. 10:10; Luke 9:3).

(d) The usual outer garment consisted of a piece of woollen cloth like a Scotch plaid, either wrapped round the body or thrown over the shoulders like a shawl, with the ends hanging down in front, or it might be thrown over the head so as to conceal the face (2 Sam. 15:30; Esther 6:12). It was confined to the waist by a girdle, and the fold formed by the overlapping of the robe served as a pocket (2 Kings 4:39; Ps. 79:12; Hag. 2:12; Prov. 17:23; 21:14).

Female dress. The "coat" was common to both sexes (Cant. 5:3). But peculiar to females were (1) the "veil" or "wimple," a kind of shawl (Ruth 3:15; rendered "mantle," R.V., Isa. 3:22); (2) the "mantle," also a species of shawl (Isa. 3:22); (3) a "veil," probably a light summer dress (Gen. 24:65); (4) a "stomacher," a holiday dress (Isa. 3:24). The outer garment terminated in an ample fringe or border, which concealed the feet (Isa. 47:2; Jer. 13:22).

The dress of the Persians is described in Dan. 3:21.

The reference to the art of sewing are few, inasmuch as the garments generally came forth from the loom ready for being worn, and all that was required in the making of clothes devolved on the women of a family (Prov. 31:22; Acts 9:39).

Extravagance in dress is referred to in Jer. 4:30; Ezek. 16:10; Zeph. 1:8 (R.V., "foreign apparel"); 1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3. Rending the robes was expressive of grief (Gen. 37:29, 34), fear (1 Kings 21:27), indignation (2 Kings 5:7), or despair (Judg. 11:35; Esther 4:1).

Shaking the garments, or shaking the dust from off them, was a sign of renunciation (Acts 18:6); wrapping them round the head, of awe (1 Kings 19:13) or grief (2 Sam. 15:30; casting them off, of excitement (Acts 22:23); laying hold of them, of supplication (1 Sam. 15:27). In the case of travelling, the outer garments were girded up (1 Kings 18:46). They were thrown aside also when they would impede action (Mark 10:50; John 13:4; Acts 7:58).

Drink - The drinks of the Hebrews were water, wine, "strong drink," and vinegar. Their drinking vessels were the cup, goblet or "basin," the "cruse" or pitcher, and the saucer.

To drink water by measure (Ezek. 4:11), and to buy water to drink (Lam. 5:4), denote great scarcity. To drink blood means to be satiated with slaughter.

The Jews carefully strained their drinks through a sieve, through fear of violating the law of Lev. 11:20, 23, 41, 42. (See Matt. 23:24. "Strain at" should be "strain out.")

Drink-offering - consisted of wine (Num. 15:5; Hos. 9:4) poured around the altar (Ex. 30:9). Joined with meat-offerings (Num. 6:15, 17; 2 Kings 16:13; Joel 1:9, 13; 2:14), presented daily (Ex. 29:40), on the Sabbath (Num. 28:9), and on feast-days (28:14). One-fourth of an hin of wine was required for one lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bullock (Num. 15:5; 28:7, 14). "Drink offerings of blood" (Ps. 16:4) is used in allusion to the heathen practice of mingling the blood of animals sacrificed with wine or water, and pouring out the mixture in the worship of the gods, and the idea conveyed is that the psalmist would not partake of the abominations of the heathen.

Drink, strong - (Heb. shekar'), an intoxicating liquor (Judg. 13:4; Luke 1:15; Isa. 5:11; Micah 2:11) distilled from corn, honey, or dates. The effects of the use of strong drink are referred to in Ps. 107:27; Isa. 24:20; 49:26; 51:17-22. Its use prohibited, Prov. 20:1. (See WINE.)

Dromedary - (Isa. 60:6), an African or Arabian species of camel having only one hump, while the Bactrian camel has two. It is distinguished from the camel only as a trained saddle-horse is distinguished from a cart-horse. It is remarkable for its speed (Jer. 2:23). Camels are frequently spoken of in partriarchal times (Gen. 12:16; 24:10; 30:43; 31:17, etc.). They were used for carrying burdens (Gen. 37:25; Judg. 6:5), and for riding (Gen. 24:64). The hair of the camel falls off of itself in spring, and is woven into coarse cloths and garments (Matt. 3:4). (See CAMEL.)

Dropsy - mentioned only in Luke 14:2. The man afflicted with it was cured by Christ on the Sabbath.

Dross - the impurities of silver separated from the one in the process of melting (Prov. 25:4; 26:23; Ps. 119:119). It is also used to denote the base metal itself, probably before it is smelted, in Isa. 1:22, 25.

Drought - From the middle of May to about the middle of August the land of Palestine is dry. It is then the "drought of summer" (Gen. 31:40; Ps. 32:4), and the land suffers (Deut. 28:23: Ps. 102:4), vegetation being preserved only by the dews (Hag. 1:11). (See DEW.)

Drown - (Ex. 15:4; Amos 8:8; Heb. 11:29). Drowning was a mode of capital punishment in use among the Syrians, and was known to the Jews in the time of our Lord. To this he alludes in Matt. 18:6.

Drunk - The first case of intoxication on record is that of Noah (Gen. 9:21). The sin of drunkenness is frequently and strongly condemned (Rom. 13:13; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Eph. 5:18; 1 Thess. 5:7, 8). The sin of drinking to excess seems to have been not uncommon among the Israelites.

The word is used figuratively, when men are spoken of as being drunk with sorrow, and with the wine of God's wrath (Isa. 63:6; Jer. 51:57; Ezek. 23:33). To "add drunkenness to thirst" (Deut. 29:19, A.V.) is a proverbial expression, rendered in the Revised Version "to destroy the moist with the dry", i.e., the well-watered equally with the dry land, meaning that the effect of such walking in the imagination of their own hearts would be to destroy one and all.

Drusilla - third and youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12:1-4, 20-23). Felix, the Roman procurator of Judea, induced her to leave her husband, Azizus, the king of Emesa, and become his wife. She was present with Felix when Paul reasoned of "righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come" (Acts 24:24). She and her son perished in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A.D. 79.

Duke - derived from the Latin dux, meaning "a leader;" Arabic, "a sheik." This word is used to denote the phylarch or chief of a tribe (Gen. 36:15-43; Ex. 15:15; 1 Chr. 1:51-54).

Dulcimer - (Heb. sumphoniah), a musical instrument mentioned in Dan. 3:5, 15, along with other instruments there named, as sounded before the golden image. It was not a Jewish instrument. In the margin of the Revised Version it is styled the "bag-pipe." Luther translated it "lute," and Grotius the "crooked trumpet." It is probable that it was introduced into Babylon by some Greek or Western-Asiatic musician. Some Rabbinical commentators render it by "organ," the well-known instrument composed of a series of pipes, others by "lyre." The most probable interpretation is that it was a bag-pipe similar to the zampagna of Southern Europe.

Dumah - silence, (comp. Ps. 94:17), the fourth son of Ishmael; also the tribe descended from him; and hence also the region in Arabia which they inhabited (Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30).

There was also a town of this name in Judah (Josh. 15:52), which has been identified with ed-Domeh, about 10 miles southwest of Hebron. The place mentioned in the "burden" of the prophet Isaiah (21:11) is Edom or Idumea.

Dumb - from natural infirmity (Ex. 4:11); not knowing what to say (Prov. 31:8); unwillingness to speak (Ps. 39:9; Lev. 10:3). Christ repeatedly restored the dumb (Matt. 9:32, 33; Luke 11:14; Matt. 12:22) to the use of speech.

Dung - (1.) Used as manure (Luke 13:8); collected outside the city walls (Neh. 2:13). Of sacrifices, burned outside the camp (Ex. 29:14; Lev. 4:11; 8:17; Num. 19:5). To be "cast out as dung," a figurative expression (1 Kings 14:10; 2 Kings 9:37; Jer. 8:2; Ps. 18:42), meaning to be rejected as unprofitable.

(2.) Used as fuel, a substitute for firewood, which was with difficulty procured in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt (Ezek. 4:12-15), where cows' and camels' dung is used to the present day for this purpose.

Dungeon - different from the ordinary prison in being more severe as a place of punishment. Like the Roman inner prison (Acts 16:24), it consisted of a deep cell or cistern (Jer. 38:6). To be shut up in, a punishment common in Egypt (Gen. 39:20; 40:3; 41:10; 42:19). It is not mentioned, however, in the law of Moses as a mode of punishment. Under the later kings imprisonment was frequently used as a punishment (2 Chron. 16:10; Jer. 20:2; 32:2; 33:1; 37:15), and it was customary after the Exile (Matt. 11:2; Luke 3:20; Acts 5:18, 21; Matt. 18:30).

Dung-gate - (Neh. 2:13), a gate of ancient Jerusalem, on the south-west quarter. "The gate outside of which lay the piles of sweepings and offscourings of the streets," in the valley of Tophet.

Dung-hill - to sit on a, was a sign of the deepest dejection (1 Sam. 2:8; Ps. 113:7; Lam. 4:5).

Dura - the circle, the plain near Babylon in which Nebuchadnezzar set up a golden image, mentioned in Dan. 3:1. The place still retains its ancient name. On one of its many mounds the pedestal of what must have been a colossal statue has been found. It has been supposed to be that of the golden image.

Dust - Storms of sand and dust sometimes overtake Eastern travellers. They are very dreadful, many perishing under them. Jehovah threatens to bring on the land of Israel, as a punishment for forsaking him, a rain of "powder and dust" (Deut. 28:24).

To cast dust on the head was a sign of mourning (Josh. 7:6); and to sit in dust, of extreme affliction (Isa. 47:1). "Dust" is used to denote the grave (Job 7:21). "To shake off the dust from one's feet" against another is to renounce all future intercourse with him (Matt. 10:14; Acts 13:51). To "lick the dust" is a sign of abject submission (Ps. 72:9); and to throw dust at one is a sign of abhorrence (2 Sam. 16:13; comp. Acts 22:23).

Dwarf - a lean or emaciated person (Lev. 21:20).

Dwell - Tents were in primitive times the common dwellings of men. Houses were afterwards built, the walls of which were frequently of mud (Job 24:16; Matt. 6:19, 20) or of sun-dried bricks.

God "dwells in light" (1 Tim. 6:16; 1 John 1:7), in heaven (Ps. 123:1), in his church (Ps. 9:11; 1 John 4:12). Christ dwelt on earth in the days of his humiliation (John 1:14). He now dwells in the hearts of his people (Eph. 3:17-19). The Holy Spirit dwells in believers (1 Cor. 3:16; 2 Tim. 1:14). We are exhorted to "let the word of God dwell in us richly" (Col. 3:16; Ps. 119:11).

Dwell deep occurs only in Jer. 49:8, and refers to the custom of seeking refuge from impending danger, in retiring to the recesses of rocks and caverns, or to remote places in the desert.

Dwellings - The materials used in buildings were commonly bricks, sometimes also stones (Lev. 14:40, 42), which were held together by cement (Jer. 43:9) or bitumen (Gen. 11:3). The exterior was usually whitewashed (Lev. 14:41; Ezek. 13:10; Matt. 23:27). The beams were of sycamore (Isa. 9:10), or olive-wood, or cedar (1 Kings 7:2; Isa. 9:10).

The form of Eastern dwellings differed in many respects from that of dwellings in Western lands. The larger houses were built in a quadrangle enclosing a court-yard (Luke 5:19; 2 Sam. 17:18; Neh. 8:16) surrounded by galleries, which formed the guest-chamber or reception-room for visitors. The flat roof, surrounded by a low parapet, was used for many domestic and social purposes. It was reached by steps from the court. In connection with it (2 Kings 23:12) was an upper room, used as a private chamber (2 Sam 18:33; Dan. 6:11), also as a bedroom (2 Kings 23:12), a sleeping apartment for guests (2 Kings 4:10), and as a sick-chamber (1 Kings 17:19). The doors, sometimes of stone, swung on morticed pivots, and were generally fastened by wooden bolts. The houses of the more wealthy had a doorkeeper or a female porter (John 18:16; Acts 12:13). The windows generally opened into the courtyard, and were closed by a lattice (Judg. 5:28). The interior rooms were set apart for the female portion of the household.

The furniture of the room (2 Kings 4:10) consisted of a couch furnished with pillows (Amos 6:4; Ezek. 13:20); and besides this, chairs, a table and lanterns or lamp-stands (2 Kings 4:10).

Dye - The art of dyeing is one of great antiquity, although no special mention is made of it in the Old Testament. The Hebrews probably learned it from the Egyptians (see Ex. 26:1; 28:5-8), who brought it to great perfection. In New Testament times Thyatira was famed for its dyers (Acts 16:14). (See COLOUR.)

"E"

Eagle - (Herb. nesher; properly the griffon vulture or great vulture, so called from its tearing its prey with its beak), referred to for its swiftness of flight (Deut. 28:49; 2 Sam. 1:23), its mounting high in the air (Job 39:27), its strength (Ps. 103:5), its setting its nest in high places (Jer. 49:16), and its power of vision (Job 39:27-30).

This "ravenous bird" is a symbol of those nations whom God employs and sends forth to do a work of destruction, sweeping away whatever is decaying and putrescent (Matt. 24:28; Isa. 46:11; Ezek. 39:4; Deut. 28:49; Jer. 4:13; 48:40). It is said that the eagle sheds his feathers in the beginning of spring, and with fresh plumage assumes the appearance of youth. To this, allusion is made in Ps. 103:5 and Isa. 40:31. God's care over his people is likened to that of the eagle in training its young to fly (Ex. 19:4; Deut. 32:11, 12). An interesting illustration is thus recorded by Sir Humphry Davy:, "I once saw a very interesting sight above the crags of Ben Nevis. Two parent eagles were teaching their offspring, two young birds, the maneuvers of flight. They began by rising from the top of the mountain in the eye of the sun. It was about mid-day, and bright for the climate. They at first made small circles, and the young birds imitated them. They paused on their wings, waiting till they had made their flight, and then took a second and larger gyration, always rising toward the sun, and enlarging their circle of flight so as to make a gradually ascending spiral. The young ones still and slowly followed, apparently flying better as they mounted; and they continued this sublime exercise, always rising till they became mere points in the air, and the young ones were lost, and afterwards their parents, to our aching sight." (See Isa. 40:31.)

There have been observed in Palestine four distinct species of eagles, (1) the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos); (2) the spotted eagle (Aquila naevia); (3) the common species, the imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca); and (4) the Circaetos gallicus, which preys on reptiles. The eagle was unclean by the Levitical law (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12).

Ear - used frequently in a figurative sense (Ps. 34:15). To "uncover the ear" is to show respect to a person (1 Sam. 20:2 marg.). To have the "ear heavy", or to have "uncircumcised ears" (Isa. 6:10), is to be inattentive and disobedient. To have the ear "bored" through with an awl was a sign of perpetual servitude (Ex. 21:6).

Earing - an Old English word (from the Latin aro, I plough), meaning "ploughing." It is used in the Authorized Version in Gen. 45:6; Ex. 34:21; 1 Sam. 8:12; Deut. 21:4; Isa. 30:24; but the Revised Version has rendered the original in these places by the ordinary word to plough or till.

Earnest - The Spirit is the earnest of the believer's destined inheritance (2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:14). The word thus rendered is the same as that rendered "pledge" in Gen. 38:17-20; "indeed, the Hebrew word has simply passed into the Greek and Latin languages, probably through commercial dealings with the Phoenicians, the great trading people of ancient days. Originally it meant no more than a pledge; but in common usage it came to denote that particular kind of pledge which is a part of the full price of an article paid in advance; and as it is joined with the figure of a seal when applied to the Spirit, it seems to be used by Paul in this specific sense." The Spirit's gracious presence and working in believers is a foretaste to them of the blessedness of heaven. God is graciously pleased to give not only pledges but foretastes of future blessedness.

Earrings - rings properly for the ear (Gen. 35:4; Num. 31:50; Ezek. 16:12). In Gen. 24:47 the word means a nose-jewel, and is so rendered in the Revised Version. In Isa. 3:20 the Authorized Version has "ear-rings," and the Revised Version "amulets," which more correctly represents the original word (lehashim), which means incantations; charms, thus remedies against enchantment, worn either suspended from the neck or in the ears of females. Ear-rings were ornaments used by both sexes (Ex. 32:2).

Earth - (1.) In the sense of soil or ground, the translation of the word adamah'. In Gen. 9:20 "husbandman" is literally "man of the ground or earth." Altars were to be built of earth (Ex. 20:24). Naaman asked for two mules' burden of earth (2 Kings 5:17), under the superstitious notion that Jehovah, like the gods of the heathen, could be acceptably worshipped only on his own soil.

(2). As the rendering of 'erets, it means the whole world (Gen. 1:2); the land as opposed to the sea (1:10). Erets also denotes a country (21:32); a plot of ground (23:15); the ground on which a man stands (33:3); the inhabitants of the earth (6:1; 11:1); all the world except Israel (2 Chr. 13:9). In the New Testament "the earth" denotes the land of Judea (Matt. 23:35); also things carnal in contrast with things heavenly (John 3:31; Col. 3:1, 2).

Earthquake - mentioned among the extraordinary phenomena of Palestine (Ps. 18:7; comp. Hab. 3:6; Nah. 1:5; Isa. 5:25).

The first earthquake in Palestine of which we have any record happened in the reign of Ahab (1 Kings 19:11, 12). Another took place in the days of Uzziah, King of Judah (Zech. 14:5). The most memorable earthquake taking place in New Testament times happened at the crucifixion of our Lord (Matt. 27:54). An earthquake at Philippi shook the prison in which Paul and Silas were imprisoned (Act 16:26).

It is used figuratively as a token of the presence of the Lord (Judg. 5:4; 2 Sam. 22:8; Ps. 77:18; 97:4; 104:32).

East - (1.) The orient (mizrah); the rising of the sun. Thus "the east country" is the country lying to the east of Syria, the Elymais (Zech. 8:7).

(2). Properly what is in front of one, or a country that is before or in front of another; the rendering of the word kedem. In pointing out the quarters, a Hebrew always looked with his face toward the east. The word kedem is used when the four quarters of the world are described (Gen. 13:14; 28:14); and mizrah when the east only is distinguished from the west (Josh. 11:3; Ps. 50:1; 103:12, etc.). In Gen. 25:6 "eastward" is literally "unto the land of kedem;" i.e., the lands lying east of Palestine, namely, Arabia, Mesopotamia, etc.

East, Children of the - the Arabs as a whole, known as the Nabateans or Kedarenes, nomad tribes (Judg. 6:3,33; 7:12; 8:10).

Easter - originally a Saxon word (Eostre), denoting a goddess of the Saxons, in honour of whom sacrifices were offered about the time of the Passover. Hence the name came to be given to the festival of the Resurrection of Christ, which occured at the time of the Passover. In the early English versions this word was frequently used as the translation of the Greek pascha (the Passover). When the Authorized Version (1611) was formed, the word "passover" was used in all passages in which this word pascha occurred, except in Act 12:4. In the Revised Version the proper word, "passover," is always used.

East gate - (Jer. 19:2), properly the Potter's gate, the gate which led to the potter's field, in the valley of Hinnom.

East sea - (Joel 2:20; Ezek. 47:18), the Dead Sea, which lay on the east side of the Holy Land. The Mediterranean, which lay on the west, was hence called the "great sea for the west border" (Num. 34:6).

East wind - the wind coming from the east (Job 27:21; Isa. 27:8, etc.). Blight caused by this wind, "thin ears" (Gen. 41:6); the withered "gourd" (Jonah 4: 8). It was the cause and also the emblem of evil (Ezek. 17:10; 19:12; Hos. 13:15). In Palestine this wind blows from a burning desert, and hence is destitute of moisture necessary for vegetation.

Eating - The ancient Hebrews would not eat with the Egyptians (Gen. 43:32). In the time of our Lord they would not eat with Samaritans (John 4:9), and were astonished that he ate with publicans and sinners (Matt. 9:11). The Hebrews originally sat at table, but afterwards adopted the Persian and Chaldean practice of reclining (Luke 7:36-50). Their principal meal was at noon (Gen. 43:16; 1 Kings 20:16; Ruth 2:14; Luke 14:12). The word "eat" is used metaphorically in Jer. 15:16; Ezek. 3:1; Rev. 10:9. In John 6:53-58, "eating and drinking" means believing in Christ. Women were never present as guests at meals (q.v.).

Ebal - stony. (1.) A mountain 3,076 feet above the level of the sea, and 1,200 feet above the level of the valley, on the north side of which stood the city of Shechem (q.v.). On this mountain six of the tribes (Deut. 27:12,13) were appointed to take their stand and respond according to a prescribed form to the imprecations uttered in the valley, where the law was read by the Levites (11:29; 29:4, 13). This mountain was also the site of the first great altar erected to Jehovah (Deut. 27:5-8; Josh. 8:30-35). After this the name of Ebal does not again occur in Jewish history. (See GERIZIM.)

(2.) A descendant of Eber (1 Chr. 1:22), called also Obal (Gen. 10:28).

(3.) A descendant of Seir the Horite (Gen. 36:23).

Ebed - slave, the father of Gaal, in whom the men of Shechem "put confidence" in their conspiracy against Abimelech (Judg. 9:26, 26, 30, 31).

Ebed-melech - a servant of the king; probably an official title, an Ethiopian, "one of the eunuchs which was in the king's house;" i.e., in the palace of Zedekiah, king of Judah. He interceded with the king in Jeremiah's behalf, and was the means of saving him from death by famine (Jer. 38:7-13: comp. 39:15-18).

Eben-ezer - stone of help, the memorial stone set up by Samuel to commemorate the divine assistance to Israel in their great battle against the Philistines, whom they totally routed (1 Sam. 7:7-12) at Aphek, in the neighbourhood of Mizpeh, in Benjamin, near the western entrance of the pass of Beth-horon. On this very battle-field, twenty years before, the Philistines routed the Israelites, "and slew of the army in the field about four thousand men" (4:1,2; here, and at 5:1, called "Eben-ezer" by anticipation). In this extremity the Israelites fetched the ark out of Shiloh and carried it into their camp. The Philistines a second time immediately attacked them, and smote them with a very great slaughter, "for there fell of Israel thirty thousand footmen. And the ark of God was taken" (1 Sam. 4:10). And now in the same place the Philistines are vanquished, and the memorial stone is erected by Samuel (q.v.). The spot where the stone was erected was somewhere "between Mizpeh and Shen." Some have identified it with the modern Beit Iksa, a conspicuous and prominent position, apparently answering all the necessary conditions; others with Dier Aban, 3 miles east of 'Ain Shems.

Eber - beyond. (1.). The third post-duluvian patriach after Shem (Gen. 10:24; 11:14). He is regarded as the founder of the Hebrew race (10:21; Num. 24:24). In Luke 3:35 he is called Heber.

(2.) One of the seven heads of the families of the Gadites (1 Chr. 5:13).

(3.) The oldest of the three sons of Elpaal the Benjamite (8:12).

(4.) One of the heads of the familes of Benjamites in Jerusalem (22).

(5.) The head of the priestly family of Amok in the time of Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:20).

Ebony - a black, hard wood, brought by the merchants from India to Tyre (Ezek. 27:15). It is the heart-wood, brought by Diospyros ebenus, which grows in Ceylon and Southern India.

Ebronah - passage, one of the stations of the Israelites in their wanderings (Num. 33:34, 35). It was near Ezion-geber.

Ecbatana - (Ezra 6:2 marg.). (See ACHMETHA.)

Ecclesiastes - the Greek rendering of the Hebrew Koheleth, which means "Preacher." The old and traditional view of the authorship of this book attributes it to Solomon. This view can be satisfactorily maintained, though others date it from the Captivity. The writer represents himself implicitly as Solomon (1:12). It has been appropriately styled The Confession of King Solomon. "The writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to selfishness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under the discipline of a divine education, and has learned from it the lesson which God meant to teach him." "The writer concludes by pointing out that the secret of a true life is that a man should consecrate the vigour of his youth to God." The key-note of the book is sounded in ch. 1:2,

"Vanity of vanities! saith the Preacher, Vanity of vanities! all is vanity!"

i.e., all man's efforts to find happiness apart from God are without result.

Eclipse - of the sun alluded to in Amos 8:9; Micah 3:6; Zech. 14:6; Joel 2:10. Eclipses were regarded as tokens of God's anger (Joel 3:15; Job 9:7). The darkness at the crucifixion has been ascribed to an eclipse (Matt. 27:45); but on the other hand it is argued that the great intensity of darkness caused by an eclipse never lasts for more than six minutes, and this darkness lasted for three hours. Moreover, at the time of the Passover the moon was full, and therefore there could not be an eclipse of the sun, which is caused by an interposition of the moon between the sun and the earth.

Ed - witness, a word not found in the original Hebrew, nor in the LXX. and Vulgate, but added by the translators in the Authorized Version, also in the Revised Version, of Josh. 22:34. The words are literally rendered: "And the children of Reuben and the children of Gad named the altar. It is a witness between us that Jehovah is God." This great altar stood probably on the east side of the Jordan, in the land of Gilead, "over against the land of Canaan." After the division of the Promised Land, the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, on returning to their own settlements on the east of Jordan (Josh. 22:1-6), erected a great altar, which they affirmed, in answer to the challenge of the other tribes, was not for sacrifice, but only as a witness ('Ed) or testimony to future generations that they still retained the same interest in the nation as the other tribes.

Edar - tower of the flock, a tower between Bethlehem and Hebron, near which Jacob first halted after leaving Bethlehem (Gen. 35:21). In Micah 4:8 the word is rendered "tower of the flock" (marg., "Edar"), and is used as a designation of Bethlehem, which figuratively represents the royal line of David as sprung from Bethlehem.

Eden - delight. (1.) The garden in which our first parents dewlt (Gen. 2:8-17). No geographical question has been so much discussed as that bearing on its site. It has been placed in Armenia, in the region west of the Caspian Sea, in Media, near Damascus, in Palestine, in Southern Arabia, and in Babylonia. The site must undoubtedly be sought for somewhere along the course of the great streams the Tigris and the Euphrates of Western Asia, in "the land of Shinar" or Babylonia. The region from about lat. 33 degrees 30' to lat. 31 degrees, which is a very rich and fertile tract, has been by the most competent authorities agreed on as the probable site of Eden. "It is a region where streams abound, where they divide and re-unite, where alone in the Mesopotamian tract can be found the phenomenon of a single river parting into four arms, each of which is or has been a river of consequence."

Among almost all nations there are traditions of the primitive innocence of our race in the garden of Eden. This was the "golden age" to which the Greeks looked back. Men then lived a "life free from care, and without labour and sorrow. Old age was unknown; the body never lost its vigour; existence was a perpetual feast without a taint of evil. The earth brought forth spontaneously all things that were good in profuse abundance."

(2.) One of the markets whence the merchants of Tyre obtained richly embroidered stuffs (Ezek. 27:23); the same, probably, as that mentioned in 2 Kings 19:12, and Isa. 37:12, as the name of a region conquered by the Assyrians.

(3.) Son of Joah, and one of the Levites who assisted in reforming the public worship of the sanctuary in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29:12).

Eder - flock. (1.) A city in the south of Judah, on the border of Idumea (Josh. 15:21).

(2.) The second of the three sons of Mushi, of the family of Merari, appointed to the Levitical office (1 Chr. 23:23; 24:30).

Edom - (1.) The name of Esau (q.v.), Gen. 25:30, "Feed me, I pray thee, with that same red pottage [Heb. haadom, haadom, i.e., 'the red pottage, the red pottage'] ...Therefore was his name called Edom", i.e., Red.

(2.) Idumea (Isa. 34:5, 6; Ezek. 35:15). "The field of Edom" (Gen. 32:3), "the land of Edom" (Gen. 36:16), was mountainous (Obad. 1:8, 9, 19, 21). It was called the land, or "the mountain of Seir," the rough hills on the east side of the Arabah. It extended from the head of the Gulf of Akabah, the Elanitic gulf, to the foot of the Dead Sea (1 Kings 9:26), and contained, among other cities, the rock-hewn Sela (q.v.), generally known by the Greek name Petra (2 Kings 14:7). It is a wild and rugged region, traversed by fruitful valleys. Its old capital was Bozrah (Isa. 63:1). The early inhabitants of the land were Horites. They were destroyed by the Edomites (Deut. 2:12), between whom and the kings of Israel and Judah there was frequent war (2 Kings 8:20; 2 Chr. 28:17).

At the time of the Exodus they churlishly refused permission to the Israelites to pass through their land (Num. 20:14-21), and ever afterwards maintained an attitude of hostility toward them. They were conquered by David (2 Sam. 8:14; comp. 1 Kings 9:26), and afterwards by Amaziah (2 Chr. 25:11, 12). But they regained again their independence, and in later years, during the decline of the Jewish kingdom (2 Kings 16:6; R.V. marg., "Edomites"), made war against Israel. They took part with the Chaldeans when Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem, and afterwards they invaded and held possession of the south of Palestine as far as Hebron. At length, however, Edom fell under the growing Chaldean power (Jer. 27:3, 6).

There are many prophecies concerning Edom (Isa. 34:5, 6; Jer. 49:7-18; Ezek. 25:13; 35:1-15; Joel 3:19; Amos 1:11; Obad.; Mal. 1:3, 4) which have been remarkably fulfilled. The present desolate condition of that land is a standing testimony to the inspiration of these prophecies. After an existence as a people for above seventeen hundred years, they have utterly disappeared, and their language even is forgotten for ever. In Petra, "where kings kept their court, and where nobles assembled, there no man dwells; it is given by lot to birds, and beasts, and reptiles."

The Edomites were Semites, closely related in blood and in language to the Israelites. They dispossessed the Horites of Mount Seir; though it is clear, from Gen. 36, that they afterwards intermarried with the conquered population. Edomite tribes settled also in the south of Judah, like the Kenizzites (Gen. 36:11), to whom Caleb and Othniel belonged (Josh. 15:17). The southern part of Edom was known as Teman.

Edrei - mighty; strength. (1.) One of the chief towns of the kingdom of Bashan (Josh. 12:4, 5). Here Og was defeated by the Israelites, and the strength of the Amorites broken (Num. 21:33-35). It subsequently belonged to Manasseh, for a short time apparently, and afterwards became the abode of banditti and outlaws (Josh. 13:31). It has been identified with the modern Edr'a, which stands on a rocky promontory on the south-west edge of the Lejah (the Argob of the Hebrews, and Trachonitis of the Greeks). The ruins of Edr'a are the most extensive in the Hauran. They are 3 miles in circumference. A number of the ancient houses still remain; the walls, roofs, and doors being all of stone. The wild region of which Edrei was the capital is thus described in its modern aspect: "Elevated about 20 feet above the plain, it is a labyrinth of clefts and crevasses in the rock, formed by volcanic action; and owing to its impenetrable condition, it has become a refuge for outlaws and turbulent characters, who make it a sort of Cave of Adullam...It is, in fact, an impregnable natural fortress, about 20 miles in length and 15 in breadth" (Porter's Syria, etc.). Beneath this wonderful city there is also a subterranean city, hollowed out probably as a refuge for the population of the upper city in times of danger. (See BASHAN.)

(2.) A town of Naphtali (Josh. 19:37).

Effectual call - See CALL.

Effectual prayer - occurs in Authorized Version, James 5:16. The Revised Version renders appropriately: "The supplication of a righteous man availeth much in its working", i.e., "it moves the hand of Him who moves the world."

Egg - (Heb. beytsah, "whiteness"). Eggs deserted (Isa. 10:14), of a bird (Deut. 22:6), an ostrich (Job 39:14), the cockatrice (Isa. 59:5). In Luke 11:12, an egg is contrasted with a scorpion, which is said to be very like an egg in its appearance, so much so as to be with difficulty at times distinguished from it. In Job 6:6 ("the white of an egg") the word for egg (hallamuth') occurs nowhere else. It has been translated "purslain" (R.V. marg.), and the whole phrase "purslain-broth", i.e., broth made of that herb, proverbial for its insipidity; and hence an insipid discourse. Job applies this expression to the speech of Eliphaz as being insipid and dull. But the common rendering, "the white of an egg", may be satisfactorily maintained.

Eglah - a heifer, one of David's wives, and mother of Ithream (2 Sam. 3:5; 1 Chr. 3:3). According to a Jewish tradition she was Michal.

Eglaim - two ponds, (Isa. 15:8), probably En-eglaim of Ezek. 47:10.

Eglon - the bullock; place of heifers. (1.) Chieftain or king of one of the Moabite tribes (Judg. 3:12-14). Having entered into an alliance with Ammon and Amalek, he overran the trans-Jordanic region, and then crossing the Jordan, seized on Jericho, the "city of palm trees," which had been by this time rebuilt, but not as a fortress. He made this city his capital, and kept Israel in subjection for eighteen years. The people at length "cried unto the Lord" in their distress, and he "raised them up a deliverer" in Ehud (q.v.), the son of Gera, a Benjamite.

(2.) A city in Judah, near Lachish (Josh. 15:39). It was destroyed by Joshua (10:5, 6). It has been identified with Tell Nejileh, 6 miles south of Tell Hesy or Ajlan, north-west of Lachish. (See LACHISH.)

Egypt - the land of the Nile and the pyramids, the oldest kingdom of which we have any record, holds a place of great significance in Scripture.

The Egyptians belonged to the white race, and their original home is still a matter of dispute. Many scholars believe that it was in Southern Arabia, and recent excavations have shown that the valley of the Nile was originally inhabited by a low-class population, perhaps belonging to the Nigritian stock, before the Egyptians of history entered it. The ancient Egyptian language, of which the latest form is Coptic, is distantly connected with the Semitic family of speech.

Egypt consists geographically of two halves, the northern being the Delta, and the southern Upper Egypt, between Cairo and the First Cataract. In the Old Testament, Northern or Lower Egypt is called Mazor, "the fortified land" (Isa. 19:6; 37: 25, where the A.V. mistranslates "defence" and "besieged places"); while Southern or Upper Egypt is Pathros, the Egyptian Pa-to-Res, or "the land of the south" (Isa. 11:11). But the whole country is generally mentioned under the dual name of Mizraim, "the two Mazors."

The civilization of Egypt goes back to a very remote antiquity. The two kingdoms of the north and south were united by Menes, the founder of the first historical dynasty of kings. The first six dynasties constitute what is known as the Old Empire, which had its capital at Memphis, south of Cairo, called in the Old Testament Moph (Hos. 9:6) and Noph. The native name was Mennofer, "the good place."

The Pyramids were tombs of the monarchs of the Old Empire, those of Gizeh being erected in the time of the Fourth Dynasty. After the fall of the Old Empire came a period of decline and obscurity. This was followed by the Middle Empire, the most powerful dynasty of which was the Twelfth. The Fayyum was rescued for agriculture by the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty; and two obelisks were erected in front of the temple of the sun-god at On or Heliopolis (near Cairo), one of which is still standing. The capital of the Middle Empire was Thebes, in Upper Egypt.

The Middle Empire was overthrown by the invasion of the Hyksos, or shepherd princes from Asia, who ruled over Egypt, more especially in the north, for several centuries, and of whom there were three dynasties of kings. They had their capital at Zoan or Tanis (now San), in the north-eastern part of the Delta. It was in the time of the Hyksos that Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph entered Egypt. The Hyksos were finally expelled about B.C. 1600, by the hereditary princes of Thebes, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty, and carried the war into Asia. Canaan and Syria were subdued, as well as Cyprus, and the boundaries of the Egyptian Empire were fixed at the Euphrates. The Soudan, which had been conquered by the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty, was again annexed to Egypt, and the eldest son of the Pharaoh took the title of "Prince of Cush."

One of the later kings of the dynasty, Amenophis IV., or Khu-n-Aten, endeavoured to supplant the ancient state religion of Egypt by a new faith derived from Asia, which was a sort of pantheistic monotheism, the one supreme god being adored under the image of the solar disk. The attempt led to religious and civil war, and the Pharaoh retreated from Thebes to Central Egypt, where he built a new capital, on the site of the present Tell-el-Amarna. The cuneiform tablets that have been found there represent his foreign correspondence (about B.C. 1400). He surrounded himself with officials and courtiers of Asiatic, and more especially Canaanitish, extraction; but the native party succeeded eventually in overthrowing the government, the capital of Khu-n-Aten was destroyed, and the foreigners were driven out of the country, those that remained being reduced to serfdom.

The national triumph was marked by the rise of the Nineteenth Dynasty, in the founder of which, Rameses I., we must see the "new king, who knew not Joseph." His grandson, Rameses II., reigned sixty-seven years (B.C. 1348-1281), and was an indefatigable builder. As Pithom, excavated by Dr. Naville in 1883, was one of the cities he built, he must have been the Pharaoh of the Oppression. The Pharaoh of the Exodus may have been one of his immediate successors, whose reigns were short. Under them Egypt lost its empire in Asia, and was itself attacked by barbarians from Libya and the north.

The Nineteenth Dynasty soon afterwards came to an end; Egypt was distracted by civil war; and for a short time a Canaanite, Arisu, ruled over it.

Then came the Twentieth Dynasty, the second Pharaoh of which, Rameses III., restored the power of his country. In one of his campaigns he overran the southern part of Palestine, where the Israelites had not yet settled. They must at the time have been still in the wilderness. But it was during the reign of Rameses III. that Egypt finally lost Gaza and the adjoining cities, which were seized by the Pulista, or Philistines.

After Rameses III., Egypt fell into decay. Solomon married the daughter of one of the last kings of the Twenty-first Dynasty, which was overthrown by Shishak I., the general of the Libyan mercenaries, who founded the Twenty-second Dynasty (1 Kings 11:40; 14:25, 26). A list of the places he captured in Palestine is engraved on the outside of the south wall of the temple of Karnak.

In the time of Hezekiah, Egypt was conquered by Ethiopians from the Soudan, who constituted the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. The third of them was Tirhakah (2 Kings 19:9). In B.C. 674 it was conquered by the Assyrians, who divided it into twenty satrapies, and Tirhakah was driven back to his ancestral dominions. Fourteen years later it successfully revolted under Psammetichus I. of Sais, the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Among his successors were Necho (2 Kings 23:29) and Hophra, or Apries (Jer. 37:5, 7, 11). The dynasty came to an end in B.C. 525, when the country was subjugated by Cambyses. Soon afterwards it was organized into a Persian satrapy.

The title of Pharaoh, given to the Egyptian kings, is the Egyptian Per-aa, or "Great House," which may be compared to that of "Sublime Porte." It is found in very early Egyptian texts.

The Egyptian religion was a strange mixture of pantheism and animal worship, the gods being adored in the form of animals. While the educated classes resolved their manifold deities into manifestations of one omnipresent and omnipotent divine power, the lower classes regarded the animals as incarnations of the gods.

Under the Old Empire, Ptah, the Creator, the god of Memphis, was at the head of the Pantheon; afterwards Amon, the god of Thebes, took his place. Amon, like most of the other gods, was identified with Ra, the sun-god of Heliopolis.

The Egyptians believed in a resurrection and future life, as well as in a state of rewards and punishments dependent on our conduct in this world. The judge of the dead was Osiris, who had been slain by Set, the representative of evil, and afterwards restored to life. His death was avenged by his son Horus, whom the Egyptians invoked as their "Redeemer." Osiris and Horus, along with Isis, formed a trinity, who were regarded as representing the sun-god under different forms.

Even in the time of Abraham, Egypt was a flourishing and settled monarchy. Its oldest capital, within the historic period, was Memphis, the ruins of which may still be seen near the Pyramids and the Sphinx. When the Old Empire of Menes came to an end, the seat of empire was shifted to Thebes, some 300 miles farther up the Nile. A short time after that, the Delta was conquered by the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, who fixed their capital at Zoan, the Greek Tanis, now San, on the Tanic arm of the Nile. All this occurred before the time of the new king "which knew not Joseph" (Ex. 1:8). In later times Egypt was conquered by the Persians (B.C. 525), and by the Greeks under Alexander the Great (B.C. 332), after whom the Ptolemies ruled the country for three centuries. Subsequently it was for a time a province of the Roman Empire; and at last, in A.D. 1517, it fell into the hands of the Turks, of whose empire it still forms nominally a part. Abraham and Sarah went to Egypt in the time of the shepherd kings. The exile of Joseph and the migration of Jacob to "the land of Goshen" occurred about 200 years later. On the death of Solomon, Shishak, king of Egypt, invaded Palestine (1 Kings 14:25). He left a list of the cities he conquered.

A number of remarkable clay tablets, discovered at Tell-el-Amarna in Upper Egypt, are the most important historical records ever found in connection with the Bible. They most fully confirm the historical statements of the Book of Joshua, and prove the antiquity of civilization in Syria and Palestine. As the clay in different parts of Palestine differs, it has been found possible by the clay alone to decide where the tablets come from when the name of the writer is lost. The inscriptions are cuneiform, and in the Aramaic language, resembling Assyrian. The writers are Phoenicians, Amorites, and Philistines, but in no instance Hittites, though Hittites are mentioned. The tablets consist of official dispatches and letters, dating from B.C. 1480, addressed to the two Pharaohs, Amenophis III. and IV., the last of this dynasty, from the kings and governors of Phoenicia and Palestine. There occur the names of three kings killed by Joshua, Adoni-zedec, king of Jerusalem, Japhia, king of Lachish (Josh. 10:3), and Jabin, king of Hazor (11:1); also the Hebrews (Abiri) are said to have come from the desert.

The principal prophecies of Scripture regarding Egypt are these, Isa. 19; Jer. 43: 8-13; 44:30; 46; Ezek. 29-32; and it might be easily shown that they have all been remarkably fulfilled. For example, the singular disappearance of Noph (i.e., Memphis) is a fulfilment of Jer. 46:19, Ezek. 30:13.

Ehud - union. (1.) A descendant of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:10), his great-grandson.

(2.) The son of Gera, of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 3:15). After the death of Othniel the people again fell into idolatry, and Eglon, the king of Moab, uniting his bands with those of the Ammonites and the Amalekites, crossed the Jordan and took the city of Jericho, and for eighteen years held that whole district in subjection, exacting from it an annual tribute. At length Ehud, by a stratagem, put Eglon to death with a two-edged dagger a cubit long, and routed the Moabites at the fords of the Jordan, putting 10,000 of them to death. Thenceforward the land, at least Benjamin, enjoyed rest "for fourscore years" (Judg. 3:12-30). (See QUARRIES ¯T0003032 [2].) But in the south-west the Philistines reduced the Israelites to great straits (Judg. 5:6). From this oppression Shamgar was raised up to be their deliverer.

Ekron - firm-rooted, the most northerly of the five towns belonging to the lords of the Philistines, about 11 miles north of Gath. It was assigned to Judah (Josh. 13:3), and afterwards to Dan (19:43), but came again into the full possession of the Philistines (1 Sam. 5:10). It was the last place to which the Philistines carried the ark before they sent it back to Israel (1 Sam. 5:10; 6:1-8). There was here a noted sanctuary of Baal-zebub (2 Kings 1: 2, 3, 6, 16). Now the small village Akir. It is mentioned on monuments in B.C. 702, when Sennacherib set free its king, imprisoned by Hezekiah in Jerusalem, according to the Assyrian record.

Elah - terebinth or oak. (1.) Valley of, where the Israelites were encamped when David killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:2, 19). It was near Shochoh of Judah and Azekah (17:1). It is the modern Wady es-Sunt, i.e., "valley of the acacia." "The terebinths from which the valley of Elah takes its name still cling to their ancient soil. On the west side of the valley, near Shochoh, there is a very large and ancient tree of this kind known as the 'terebinth of Wady Sur,' 55 feet in height, its trunk 17 feet in circumference, and the breadth of its shade no less than 75 feet. It marks the upper end of the Elah valley, and forms a noted object, being one of the largest terebinths in Palestine." Geikie's, The Holy Land, etc.

(2.) One of the Edomite chiefs or "dukes" of Mount Seir (Gen. 36:41).

(3.) The second of the three sons of Caleb, the son of Jephunneh (1 Chr. 4:15).

(4.) The son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kings 16:8-10). He was killed while drunk by Zimri, one of the captains of his chariots, and was the last king of the line of Baasha. Thus was fullfilled the prophecy of Jehu (6, 7, 11-14).

(5.) The father of Hoshea, the last king of Israel (2 Kings 15:30; 17:1).

Elam - highland, the son of Shem (Gen. 10:22), and the name of the country inhabited by his descendants (14:1, 9; Isa. 11:11; 21:2, etc.) lying to the east of Babylonia, and extending to the shore of the Mediterranean, a distance in a direct line of about 1,000 miles. The name Elam is an Assyrian word meaning "high."

"The inhabitants of Elam, or 'the Highlands,' to the east of Babylon, were called Elamites. They were divided into several branches, speaking different dialects of the same agglutinative language. The race to which they belonged was brachycephalic, or short-headed, like the pre-Semitic Sumerians of Babylonia.

"The earliest Elamite kingdom seems to have been that of Anzan, the exact site of which is uncertain; but in the time of Abraham, Shushan or Susa appears to have already become the capital of the country. Babylonia was frequently invaded by the Elamite kings, who at times asserted their supremacy over it (as in the case of Chedorlaomer, the Kudur-Lagamar, or 'servant of the goddess Lagamar,' of the cuneiform texts).

"The later Assyrian monarchs made several campaigns against Elam, and finally Assur-bani-pal (about B.C. 650) succeeded in conquering the country, which was ravaged with fire and sword. On the fall of the Assyrian Empire, Elam passed into the hands of the Persians" (A.H. Sayce).

This country was called by the Greeks Cissia or Susiana.

Elasah - God made. (1.) One of the descendants of Judah, of the family of Hezron (1 Chr. 2:39, "Eleasah").

(2.) A descendant of king Saul (1 Chr. 8:37; 9:43).

(3.) The son of Shaphan, one of the two who were sent by Zedekiah to Nebuchadnezzar, and also took charge of Jeremiah's letter to the captives in Babylon (Jer. 29:3).

Elath - grove; trees, (Deut. 2:8), also in plural form Eloth (1 Kings 9:26, etc.); called by the Greeks and Romans Elana; a city of Idumea, on the east, i.e., the Elanitic, gulf, or the Gulf of Akabah, of the Red Sea. It is first mentioned in Deut. 2:8. It is also mentioned along with Ezion-geber in 1 Kings 9:26. It was within the limits of Solomon's dominion, but afterwards revolted. It was, however, recovered and held for a time under king Uzziah (2 Kings 14:22). Now the ruin Aila.

El-Bethel - God of Bethel, the name of the place where Jacob had the vision of the ladder, and where he erected an altar (Gen. 31:13; 35:7).

Eldad - whom God has loved, one of the seventy elders whom Moses appointed (Num. 11:26, 27) to administer justice among the people. He, with Medad, prophesied in the camp instead of going with the rest to the tabernacle, as Moses had commanded. This incident was announced to Moses by Joshua, who thought their conduct in this respect irregular. Moses replied, "Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all the Lord's people were prophets" (Num. 11:24-30; comp. Mark 9:38; Luke 9:49).

Elder - a name frequently used in the Old Testament as denoting a person clothed with authority, and entitled to respect and reverence (Gen. 50:7). It also denoted a political office (Num. 22:7). The "elders of Israel" held a rank among the people indicative of authority. Moses opened his commission to them (Ex. 3:16). They attended Moses on all important occasions. Seventy of them attended on him at the giving of the law (Ex. 24:1). Seventy also were selected from the whole number to bear with Moses the burden of the people (Num. 11:16, 17). The "elder" is the keystone of the social and political fabric wherever the patriarchal system exists. At the present day this is the case among the Arabs, where the sheik (i.e., "the old man") is the highest authority in the tribe. The body of the "elders" of Israel were the representatives of the people from the very first, and were recognized as such by Moses. All down through the history of the Jews we find mention made of the elders as exercising authority among the people. They appear as governors (Deut. 31:28), as local magistrates (16:18), administering justice (19:12). They were men of extensive influence (1 Sam. 30:26-31). In New Testament times they also appear taking an active part in public affairs (Matt. 16:21; 21:23; 26:59).

The Jewish eldership was transferred from the old dispensation to the new. "The creation of the office of elder is nowhere recorded in the New Testament, as in the case of deacons and apostles, because the latter offices were created to meet new and special emergencies, while the former was transmitted from the earlies times. In other words, the office of elder was the only permanent essential office of the church under either dispensation."

The "elders" of the New Testament church were the "pastors" (Eph. 4:11), "bishops or overseers" (Acts 20:28), "leaders" and "rulers" (Heb. 13:7; 1 Thess. 5:12) of the flock. Everywhere in the New Testament bishop and presbyter are titles given to one and the same officer of the Christian church. He who is called presbyter or elder on account of his age or gravity is also called bishop or overseer with reference to the duty that lay upon him (Titus 1:5-7; Acts 20:17-28; Phil. 1:1).

Elealeh - God has ascended, a place in the pastoral country east of Jordan, in the tribe of Reuben (Num. 32:3, 37). It is not again mentioned till the time of Isaiah (15:4; 16:9) and Jeremiah (48:34). It is now an extensive ruin called el-A'al, about one mile north-east of Heshbon.

Eleazar - God has helped. (1.) The third son of Aaron (Ex. 6:23). His wife, a daughter of Putiel, bore him Phinehas (Ex. 6:25). After the death of Nadab and Abihu (Lev. 10:12; Num. 3:4) he was appointed to the charge of the sanctuary (Num. 3:32). On Mount Hor he was clothed with the sacred vestments, which Moses took from off his brother Aaron and put upon him as successor to his father in the high priest's office, which he held for more than twenty years (Num. 20:25-29). He took part with Moses in numbering the people (26:3, 4), and assisted at the inauguration of Joshua. He assisted in the distribution of the land after the conquest (Josh. 14:1). The high-priesthood remained in his family till the time of Eli, into whose family it passed, till it was restored to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok (1 Sam. 2:35; comp. 1 Kings 2:27). "And Eleazar the son of Aaron died; and they buried him in a hill that pertained to Phinehas his son" (Josh. 24:33). The word here rendered "hill" is Gibeah, the name of several towns in Palestine which were generally on or near a hill. The words may be more suitably rendered, "They buried him in Gibeah of Phinehas", i.e., in the city of Phinehas, which has been identified, in accordance with Jewish and Samaritan traditions, with Kefr Ghuweirah='Awertah, about 7 miles north of Shiloh, and a few miles south-east of Nablus. "His tomb is still shown there, overshadowed by venerable terebinths." Others, however, have identified it with the village of Gaba or Gebena of Eusebius, the modern Khurbet Jibia, 5 miles north of Guphna towards Nablus.

(2.) An inhabitant of Kirjath-jearim who was "sanctified" to take charge of the ark, although not allowed to touch it, while it remained in the house of his father Abinadab (1 Sam. 7:1, 2; comp. Num. 3:31; 4:15).

(3.) The son of Dodo the Ahohite, of the tribe of Benjamin, one of the three most eminent of David's thirty-seven heroes (1 Chr. 11:12) who broke through the Philistine host and brought him water from the well of Bethlehem (2 Sam. 23:9, 16).

(4.) A son of Phinehas associated with the priests in taking charge of the sacred vessels brought back to Jerusalem after the Exile (Ezra 8:33).

(5.) A Levite of the family of Merari (1 Chr. 23:21, 22).

Election of Grace - The Scripture speaks (1) of the election of individuals to office or to honour and privilege, e.g., Abraham, Jacob, Saul, David, Solomon, were all chosen by God for the positions they held; so also were the apostles. (2) There is also an election of nations to special privileges, e.g., the Hebrews (Deut. 7:6; Rom. 9:4). (3) But in addition there is an election of individuals to eternal life (2 Thess. 2:13; Eph. 1:4; 1 Pet. 1:2; John 13:18).

The ground of this election to salvation is the good pleasure of God (Eph. 1:5, 11; Matt. 11:25, 26; John 15:16, 19). God claims the right so to do (Rom. 9:16, 21).

It is not conditioned on faith or repentance, but is of soverign grace (Rom. 11:4-6; Eph. 1:3-6). All that pertain to salvation, the means (Eph. 2:8; 2 Thess. 2:13) as well as the end, are of God (Acts 5:31; 2 Tim. 2:25; 1 Cor. 1:30; Eph. 2:5, 10). Faith and repentance and all other graces are the exercises of a regenerated soul; and regeneration is God's work, a "new creature."

Men are elected "to salvation," "to the adoption of sons," "to be holy and without blame before him in love" (2 Thess. 2:13; Gal. 4:4, 5; Eph. 1:4). The ultimate end of election is the praise of God's grace (Eph. 1:6, 12). (See PREDESTINATION.)

Elect lady - to whom the Second Epistle of John is addressed (2 John 1:1). Some think that the word rendered "lady" is a proper name, and thus that the expression should be "elect Kyria."

El-elohe-Isreal - mighty one; God of Israel, the name which Jacob gave to the alter which he erected on the piece of land where he pitched his tent before Shechem, and which he afterwards purchased from the sons of Hamor (Gen. 33:20).

Elements - In its primary sense, as denoting the first principles or constituents of things, it is used in 2 Pet. 3:10: "The elements shall be dissolved." In a secondary sense it denotes the first principles of any art or science. In this sense it is used in Gal. 4:3, 9; Col. 2:8, 20, where the expressions, "elements of the world," "week and beggarly elements," denote that state of religious knowledge existing among the Jews before the coming of Christ, the rudiments of religious teaching. They are "of the world," because they are made up of types which appeal to the senses. They are "weak," because insufficient; and "beggarly," or "poor," because they are dry and barren, not being accompanied by an outpouring of spiritual gifts and graces, as the gospel is.

Elephant - not found in Scripture except indirectly in the original Greek word (elephantinos) translated "of ivory" in Rev. 18:12, and in the Hebrew word (shenhabim, meaning "elephant's tooth") rendered "ivory" in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chr. 9:21.

Elhanan - whom God has graciously bestowed. (1.) A warrior of the time of David famed for his exploits. In the Authorized Version (2 Sam. 21:19) it is recorded that "Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, a Bethlehemite, slew the brother of Goliath." The Revised Version here rightly omits the words "the brother of." They were introduced in the Authorized Version to bring this passage into agreement with 1 Chr. 20:5, where it is said that he "slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath." Goliath the Gittite was killed by David (1 Sam. 17). The exploit of Elhanan took place late in David's reign.

(2.) The son of Dodo, and one of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23:24).

Eli - ascent, the high priest when the ark was at Shiloh (1 Sam. 1:3, 9). He was the first of the line of Ithamar, Aaron's fourth son (1 Chr. 24:3; comp. 2 Sam. 8:17), who held that office. The office remained in his family till the time of Abiathar (1 Kings 2:26, 27), whom Solomon deposed, and appointed Zadok, of the family of Eleazar, in his stead (35). He acted also as a civil judge in Israel after the death of Samson (1 Sam. 4:18), and judged Israel for forty years.

His sons Hophni and Phinehas grossly misconducted themselves, to the great disgust of the people (1 Sam. 2:27-36). They were licentious reprobates. He failed to reprove them so sternly as he ought to have done, and so brought upon his house the judgment of God (2:22-33; 3:18). The Israelites proclaimed war against the Philistines, whose army was encamped at Aphek. The battle, fought a short way beyond Mizpeh, ended in the total defeat of Israel. Four thousand of them fell in "battle array". They now sought safety in having the "ark of the covenant of the Lord" among them. They fetched it from Shiloh, and Hophni and Phinehas accompanied it. This was the first time since the settlement of Israel in Canaan that the ark had been removed from the sanctuary. The Philistines put themselves again in array against Israel, and in the battle which ensued "Israel was smitten, and there was a very great slaughter." The tidings of this great disaster were speedily conveyed to Shiloh, about 20 miles distant, by a messenger, a Benjamite from the army. There Eli sat outside the gate of the sanctuary by the wayside, anxiously waiting for tidings from the battle-field. The full extent of the national calamity was speedily made known to him: "Israel is fled before the Philistines, there has also been a great slaughter among the people, thy two sons Hophni and Phinehas are dead, and the ark of God is taken" (1 Sam. 4:12-18). When the old man, whose eyes were "stiffened" (i.e., fixed, as of a blind eye unaffected by the light) with age, heard this sad story of woe, he fell backward from off his seat and died, being ninety and eight years old. (See ITHAMAR.)

Eli, Heb. eli, "my God", (Matt. 27:46), an exclamation used by Christ on the cross. Mark (15:34), as usual, gives the original Aramaic form of the word, Eloi.

Eliab - to whom God is father. (1.) A Reubenite, son of Pallu (Num. 16:1, 12; 26:8, 9; Deut. 11:6).

(2.) A son of Helon, and chief of the tribe of Zebulun at the time of the census in the wilderness (Num. 1:9; 2:7).

(3.) The son of Jesse, and brother of David (1 Sam. 16:6). It was he who spoke contemptuously to David when he proposed to fight Goliath (1 Sam. 17:28).

(4.) One of the Gadite heroes who joined David in his stronghold in the wilderness (1 Chr. 12:9).

Eliada - whom God cares for. (1.) One of David's sons born after his establishment in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:16).

(2.) A mighty man of war, a Benjamite (2 Chr. 17:17).

(3.) An Aramite of Zobah, captain of a marauding band that troubled Solomon (1 Kings 11:23).

Eliakim - whom God will raise up. (1.) The son of Melea (Luke 3:30), and probably grandson of Nathan.

(2.) The son of Abiud, of the posterity of Zerubbabel (Matt. 1:13).

(3.) The son of Hilkiah, who was sent to receive the message of the invading Assyrians and report it to Isaiah (2 Kings 18:18; 19:2; Isa. 36:3; 37:2). In his office as governor of the palace of Hezekiah he succeeded Shebna (Isa. 22:15-25). He was a good man (Isa. 22:20; 2 Kings 18:37), and had a splendid and honourable career.

(4.) The original name of Jehoiakim, king of Judah (2 Kings 23:34). He was the son of Josiah.

Eliam - God's people. (1.) The father of Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah (2 Sam. 11:3). In 1 Chr. 3:5 his name is Ammiel.

(2.) This name also occurs as that of a Gilonite, the son of Ahithophel, and one of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23:34). perhaps these two were the same person.

Elias - the Greek form of Elijah (Matt. 11:14; 16:14, etc.), which the Revised Version has uniformly adopted in the New Testament. (See ELIJAH.)

Eliashib - whom God will restore. (1.) A priest, head of one of the courses of the priests of the time of David (1 Chr. 24:12).

(2.) A high priest in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 12:22, 23). He rebuilt the eastern city wall (3:1), his own mansion being in that quarter, on the ridge Ophel (3:20, 21). His indulgence of Tobiah the Ammonite provoked the indignation of Nehemiah (13:4, 7).

Eliathah - to whom God will come, one of the foureen sons of the Levite Heman, and musician of the temple in the time of David (1 Chr. 25:4).

Elidad - whom God has loved, son of Chislon, and chief of the tribe of Benjamin; one of those who were appointed to divide the Promised Land among the tribes (Num. 34:21).

Eliel - to whom God is might. (1.) A chief of Manasseh, on the east of Jordan (1 Chr. 5:24).

(2.) A Gadite who joined David in the hold at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:11).

(3.) One of the overseers of the offerings in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:13).

Eliezer - God his help. (1.) "Of Damascus," the "steward" (R.V., "possessor") of Abraham's house (Gen. 15:2, 3). It was probably he who headed the embassy sent by Abraham to the old home of his family in Padan-aram to seek a wife for his son Isaac. The account of this embassy is given at length in Gen. 24.

(2.) The son of Becher, and grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8).

(3.) One of the two sons of Moses, born during his sojourn in Midian (Ex. 18:4; 1 Chr. 23:15, 17). He remained with his mother and brother Gershom with Jethro when Moses returned to Egypt. (Ex. 18:4). They were restored to Moses when Jethro heard of his departure out of Egypt.

(4.) One of the priests who blew the trumpet before the ark when it was brought to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15:24).

(5.) Son of Zichri, and chief of the Reubenites under David (1 Chr. 27:16).

(6.) A prophet in the time of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20:37). Others of this name are mentioned Luke 3:29; Ezra 8:16; 10:18, 23, 31.

Elihu - whose God is he. (1.) "The son of Barachel, a Buzite" (Job 32:2), one of Job's friends. When the debate between Job and his friends is brought to a close, Elihu for the first time makes his appearance, and delivers his opinion on the points at issue (Job 32-37).

(2.) The son of Tohu, and grandfather of Elkanah (1 Sam. 1:1). He is called also Eliel (1 Chr. 6:34) and Eliab (6:27).

(3.) One of the captains of thousands of Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:20).

(4.) One of the family of Obed-edom, who were appointed porters of the temple under David (1 Chr. 26:7).

Elijah - whose God is Jehovah. (1.) "The Tishbite," the "Elias" of the New Testament, is suddenly introduced to our notice in 1 Kings 17:1 as delivering a message from the Lord to Ahab. There is mention made of a town called Thisbe, south of Kadesh, but it is impossible to say whether this was the place referred to in the name given to the prophet.

Having delivered his message to Ahab, he retired at the command of God to a hiding-place by the brook Cherith, beyond Jordan, where he was fed by ravens. When the brook dried up God sent him to the widow of Zarephath, a city of Zidon, from whose scanty store he was supported for the space of two years. During this period the widow's son died, and was restored to life by Elijah (1 Kings 17: 2-24).

During all these two years a famine prevailed in the land. At the close of this period of retirement and of preparation for his work (comp. Gal. 1:17, 18) Elijah met Obadiah, one of Ahab's officers, whom he had sent out to seek for pasturage for the cattle, and bade him go and tell his master that Elijah was there. The king came and met Elijah, and reproached him as the troubler of Israel. It was then proposed that sacrifices should be publicly offered, for the purpose of determining whether Baal or Jehovah were the true God. This was done on Carmel, with the result that the people fell on their faces, crying, "The Lord, he is the God." Thus was accomplished the great work of Elijah's ministry. The prophets of Baal were then put to death by the order of Elijah. Not one of them escaped. Then immediately followed rain, according to the word of Elijah, and in answer to his prayer (James 5:18).

Jezebel, enraged at the fate that had befallen her priests of Baal, threatened to put Elijah to death (1 Kings 19:1-13). He therefore fled in alarm to Beersheba, and thence went alone a day's journey into the wilderness, and sat down in despondency under a juniper tree. As he slept an angel touched him, and said unto him, "Arise and eat; because the journey is too great for thee." He arose and found a cake and a cruse of water. Having partaken of the provision thus miraculously supplied, he went forward on his solitary way for forty days and forty nights to Horeb, the mount of God, where he took up his abode in a cave. Here the Lord appeared unto him and said, "What dost thou here, Elijah?" In answer to his despondent words God manifests to him his glory, and then directs him to return to Damascus and anoint Hazael king over Syria, and Jehu king over Israel, and Elisha to be prophet in his room (1 Kings 19:13-21; comp. 2 Kings 8:7-15; 9:1-10).

Some six years after this he warned Ahab and Jezebel of the violent deaths they would die (1 Kings 21:19-24; 22:38). He also, four years afterwards, warned Ahaziah (q.v.), who had succeeded his father Ahab, of his approaching death (2 Kings 1:1-16). (See NABOTH.) During these intervals he probably withdrew to some quiet retirement, no one knew where. His interview with Ahaziah's messengers on the way to Ekron, and the account of the destruction of his captains with their fifties, suggest the idea that he may have been in retirement at this time on Mount Carmel.

The time now drew near when he was to be taken up into heaven (2 Kings 2:1-12). He had a presentiment of what was awaiting him. He went down to Gilgal, where was a school of the prophets, and where his successor Elisha, whom he had anointed some years before, resided. Elisha was solemnized by the thought of his master's leaving him, and refused to be parted from him. "They two went on," and came to Bethel and Jericho, and crossed the Jordan, the waters of which were "divided hither and thither" when smitten with Elijah's mantle. Arrived at the borders of Gilead, which Elijah had left many years before, it "came to pass as they still went on and talked" they were suddenly separated by a chariot and horses of fire; and "Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven, "Elisha receiving his mantle, which fell from him as he ascended.

No one of the old prophets is so frequently referred to in the New Testament. The priests and Levites said to the Baptist (John 1:25), "Why baptizest thou, if thou be not that Christ, nor Elias?" Paul (Rom. 11:2) refers to an incident in his history to illustrate his argument that God had not cast away his people. James (5:17) finds in him an illustration of the power of prayer. (See also Luke 4:25; 9:54.) He was a type of John the Baptist in the sternness and power of his reproofs (Luke 9:8). He was the Elijah that "must first come" (Matt. 11:11, 14), the forerunner of our Lord announced by Malachi. Even outwardly the Baptist corresponded so closely to the earlier prophet that he might be styled a second Elijah. In him we see "the same connection with a wild and wilderness country; the same long retirement in the desert; the same sudden, startling entrance on his work (1 Kings 17:1; Luke 3:2); even the same dress, a hairy garment, and a leathern girdle about the loins (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4)."

How deep the impression was which Elijah made "on the mind of the nation may be judged from the fixed belief, which rested on the words of Malachi (4:5, 6), which many centuries after prevailed that he would again appear for the relief and restoration of the country. Each remarkable person as he arrives on the scene, be his habits and characteristics what they may, the stern John equally with his gentle Successor, is proclaimed to be Elijah (Matt. 11:13, 14; 16:14; 17:10; Mark 9:11; 15:35; Luke 9:7, 8; John 1:21). His appearance in glory on the mount of transfiguration does not seem to have startled the disciples. They were 'sore afraid,' but not apparently surprised."

(2.) The Elijah spoken of in 2 Chr. 21:12-15 is by some supposed to be a different person from the foregoing. He lived in the time of Jehoram, to whom he sent a letter of warning (comp. 1 Chr. 28:19; Jer. 36), and acted as a prophet in Judah; while the Tishbite was a prophet of the northern kingdom. But there does not seem any necessity for concluding that the writer of this letter was some other Elijah than the Tishbite. It may be supposed either that Elijah anticipated the character of Jehoram, and so wrote the warning message, which was preserved in the schools of the prophets till Jehoram ascended the throne after the Tishbite's translation, or that the translation did not actually take place till after the accession of Jehoram to the throne (2 Chr. 21:12; 2 Kings 8:16). The events of 2 Kings 2 may not be recorded in chronological order, and thus there may be room for the opinion that Elijah was still alive in the beginning of Jehoram's reign.

Elika - God is his rejector, one of David's thirty-seven distinguished heros (2 Sam. 23:25).

Elim - trees, (Ex. 15:27; Num. 33:9), the name of the second station where the Israelites encamped after crossing the Red Sea. It had "twelve wells of water and threescore and ten palm trees." It has been identified with the Wady Ghurundel, the most noted of the four wadies which descend from the range of et-Tih towards the sea. Here they probably remained some considerable time. The form of expression in Ex. 16:1 seems to imply that the people proceeded in detachments or companies from Elim, and only for the first time were assembled as a complete host when they reached the wilderness of Sin (q.v.).

Elimelech - God his king, a man of the tribe of Judah, of the family of the Hezronites, and kinsman of Boaz, who dwelt in Bethlehem in the days of the judges. In consequence of a great dearth he, with his wife Naomi and his two sons, went to dwell in the land of Moab. There he and his sons died (Ruth 1:2,3; 2:1,3; 4:3,9). Naomi afterwards returned to Palestine with her daughter Ruth.

Elioenai - toward Jehovah are my eyes, the name of several men mentioned in the Old Testament (1 Chr. 7:8; 4:36; Ezra 10:22, 27). Among these was the eldest son of Neariah, son of Shemaiah, of the descendants of Zerubbabel. His family are the latest mentioned in the Old Testament (1 Chr. 3:23, 24).

Eliphalet - God his deliverance, one of David's sons (2 Sam. 5:16); called also Eliphelet (1 Chr. 3:8).

Eliphaz - God his strength. (1.) One of Job's "three friends" who visited him in his affliction (4:1). He was a "Temanite", i.e., a native of Teman, in Idumea. He first enters into debate with Job. His language is uniformly more delicate and gentle than that of the other two, although he imputes to Job special sins as the cause of his present sufferings. He states with remarkable force of language the infinite purity and majesty of God (4:12-21; 15:12-16).

(2.) The son of Esau by his wife Adah, and father of several Edomitish tribes (Gen. 36:4, 10, 11, 16).

Elipheleh - God will distinguish him, one of the porters appointed to play "on the Sheminith" on the occasion of the bringing up of the ark to the city of David (1 Chr. 15:18, 21).

Eliphelet - God his deliverance. (1.) One of David's distinguished warriors (2 Sam. 23:34); called also Eliphal in 1 Chr. 11:35.

(2.) One of the sons of David born at Jerusalem (1 Chr. 3:6; 14:5); called Elpalet in 1 Chr. 14:5. Also another of David's sons (1 Chr. 3:8); called Eliphalet in 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 14:7.

(3.) A descendant of king Saul through Jonathan (1 Chr. 8:39).

Elisabeth - God her oath, the mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5). She was a descendant of Aaron. She and her husband Zacharias (q.v.) "were both righteous before God" (Luke 1:5, 13). Mary's visit to Elisabeth is described in 1:39-63.

Elisha - God his salvation, the son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah, who became the attendant and disciple of Elijah (1 Kings 19:16-19). His name first occurs in the command given to Elijah to anoint him as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). This was the only one of the three commands then given to Elijah which he accomplished. On his way from Sinai to Damascus he found Elisha at his native place engaged in the labours of the field, ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen. He went over to him, threw over his shoulders his rough mantle, and at once adopted him as a son, and invested him with the prophetical office (comp. Luke 9:61, 62). Elisha accepted the call thus given (about four years before the death of Ahab), and for some seven or eight years became the close attendant on Elijah till he was parted from him and taken up into heaven. During all these years we hear nothing of Elisha except in connection with the closing scenes of Elijah's life. After Elijah, Elisha was accepted as the leader of the sons of the prophets, and became noted in Israel. He possessed, according to his own request, "a double portion" of Elijah's spirit (2 Kings 2:9); and for the long period of about sixty years (B.C. 892-832) held the office of "prophet in Israel" (2 Kings 5:8).

After Elijah's departure, Elisha returned to Jericho, and there healed the spring of water by casting salt into it (2 Kings 2:21). We next find him at Bethel (2:23), where, with the sternness of his master, he cursed the youths who came out and scoffed at him as a prophet of God: "Go up, thou bald head." The judgment at once took effect, and God terribly visited the dishonour done to his prophet as dishonour done to himself. We next read of his predicting a fall of rain when the army of Jehoram was faint from thirst (2 Kings 3:9-20); of the multiplying of the poor widow's cruse of oil (4:1-7); the miracle of restoring to life the son of the woman of Shunem (4:18-37); the multiplication of the twenty loaves of new barley into a sufficient supply for an hundred men (4:42-44); of the cure of Naaman the Syrian of his leprosy (5:1-27); of the punishment of Gehazi for his falsehood and his covetousness; of the recovery of the axe lost in the waters of the Jordan (6:1-7); of the miracle at Dothan, half-way on the road between Samaria and Jezreel; of the siege of Samaria by the king of Syria, and of the terrible sufferings of the people in connection with it, and Elisha's prophecy as to the relief that would come (2 Kings 6:24-7:2).

We then find Elisha at Damascus, to carry out the command given to his master to anoint Hazael king over Syria (2 Kings 8:7-15); thereafter he directs one of the sons of the prophets to anoint Jehu, the son of Jehoshaphat, king of Israel, instead of Ahab. Thus the three commands given to Elijah (9:1-10) were at length carried out.

We do not again read of him till we find him on his death-bed in his own house (2 Kings 13:14-19). Joash, the grandson of Jehu, comes to mourn over his approaching departure, and utters the same words as those of Elisha when Elijah was taken away: "My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof."

Afterwards when a dead body is laid in Elisha's grave a year after his burial, no sooner does it touch the hallowed remains than the man "revived, and stood up on his feet" (2 Kings 13:20-21).

Elishah - the oldest of the four sons of Javan (Gen. 10:4), whose descendants peopled Greece. It has been supposed that Elishah's descendants peopled the Peloponnesus, which was known by the name of Elis. This may be meant by "the isles of Elishah" (Ezek. 27:7).

Elishama - whom God hears. (1.) A prince of Benjamin, grandfather of Joshua (Num. 1:10; 1 Chr. 7:26). (2.) One of David's sons (2 Sam. 5:16). (3.) Another of David's sons (1 Chr. 3:6). (4.) A priest sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the people the law (2 Chr. 17:8).

Elishaphat - whom God has judged, one of the "captains of hundreds" associated with Jehoiada in the league to overthrow the usurpation of Athaliah (2 Chr. 23:1).

Elisheba - God is her oath, the daughter of Amminadab and the wife of Aaron (Ex. 6:23).

Elishua - God his salvation, a son of David, 2 Sam. 5:15 = Elishama, 1 Chr. 3:6.

Elkanah - God-created. (1.) The second son of Korah (Ex. 6:24), or, according to 1 Chr. 6:22, 23, more correctly his grandson.

(2.) Another Levite of the line of Heman the singer, although he does not seem to have performed any of the usual Levitical offices. He was father of Samuel the prophet (1 Chr. 6:27, 34). He was "an Ephrathite" (1 Sam. 1:1, 4, 8), but lived at Ramah, a man of wealth and high position. He had two wives, Hannah, who was the mother of Samuel, and Peninnah.

Elkosh - God my bow, the birth-place of Nahum the prophet (Nah. 1:1). It was probably situated in Galilee, but nothing definite is known of it.

Ellasar - the oak or heap of Assyria, a territory in Asia of which Arioch was king (Gen. 14:1, 9). It is supposed that the old Chaldean town of Larsa was the metropolis of this kingdom, situated nearly half-way between Ur (now Mugheir) and Erech, on the left bank of the Euphrates. This town is represented by the mounds of Senkereh, a little to the east of Erech.

Elm - Hos. 4:13; rendered "terebinth" in the Revised Version. It is the Pistacia terebinthus of Linn., a tree common in Palestine, long-lived, and therefore often employed for landmarks and in designating places (Gen. 35:4; Judg. 6:11, 19. Rendered "oak" in both A.V. and R.V.). (See TEIL TREE.)

Elnathan - whom God has given. (1.) An inhabitant of Jerusalem, the father of Nehushta, who was the mother of king Jehoiachin (2 Kings 24:8). Probably the same who tried to prevent Jehoiakim from burning the roll of Jeremiah's prophecies (Jer. 26:22; 36:12). (2.) Ezra 8:16.

Elon - oak. (1.) A city of Dan (Josh. 19:43). (2.) A Hittite, father of Bashemath, Esau's wife (Gen. 26:34). (3.) One of the sons of Zebulun (Gen. 46:14). (4.) The eleventh of the Hebrew judges. He held office for ten years (Judg. 12:11, 12). He is called the Zebulonite.

Elparan - oak of Paran, a place on the edge of the wilderness bordering the territory of the Horites (Gen. 14:6). This was the farthest point to which Chedorlaomer's expedition extended. It is identified with the modern desert of et-Tih. (See PARAN.)

Eltekeh - God is its fear, a city in the tribe of Dan. It was a city of refuge and a Levitical city (Josh. 21:23). It has been identified with Beit-Likia, north-east of latrum.

Elul - (Neh. 6:15), the name of the sixth month of the ecclesiastical year, and the twelfth of the civil year. It began with the new moon of our August and September, and consisted of twenty-nine days.

Elymas - magician or sorcerer, the Arabic name of the Jew Bar-jesus, who withstood Paul and Barnabas in Cyprus. He was miraculously struck with blindness (Acts 13:11).

Embalming - the process of preserving a body by means of aromatics (Gen. 50:2, 3, 26). This art was practised by the Egyptians from the earliest times, and there brought to great perfection. This custom probably originated in the belief in the future reunion of the soul with the body. The process became more and more complicated, and to such perfection was it carried that bodies embalmed thousands of years ago are preserved to the present day in the numberless mummies that have been discovered in Egypt.

The embalming of Jacob and Joseph was according to the Egyptian custom, which was partially followed by the Jews (2 Chr. 16:14), as in the case of king Asa, and of our Lord (John 19:39, 40; Luke 23:56; 24:1). (See PHARAOH.)

Embroider - The art of embroidery was known to the Jews (Ex. 26:36; 35:35; 38:23; Judg. 5:30; Ps. 45:14). The skill of the women in this art was seen in the preparation of the sacerdotal robes of the high priest (Ex. 28). It seems that the art became hereditary in certain families (1 Chr. 4:21). The Assyrians were also noted for their embroidered robes (Ezek. 27:24).

Emerald - Heb. nophek (Ex. 28:18; 39:11); i.e., the "glowing stone", probably the carbuncle, a precious stone in the breastplate of the high priest. It is mentioned (Rev. 21:19) as one of the foundations of the New Jerusalem. The name given to this stone in the New Testament Greek is smaragdos, which means "live coal."

Emerod - See HAEMORRHOIDS.

Emims - terrors, a warlike tribe of giants who were defeated by Chedorlaomer and his allies in the plain of Kiriathaim. In the time of Abraham they occupied the country east of Jordan, afterwards the land of the Moabites (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:10). They were, like the Anakim, reckoned among the Rephaim, and were conquered by the Moabites, who gave them the name of Emims, i.e., "terrible men" (Deut. 2:11). The Ammonites called them Zamzummims (2:20).

Emmanuel - God with us, Matt. 1:23). (See IMMANUEL.)

Emmaus - hot baths, a village "three-score furlongs" from jerusalem, where our Lord had an interview with two of his disciples on the day of his resurrection (Luke 24:13). This has been identified with the modern el-Kubeibeh, lying over 7 miles north-west of Jerusalem. This name, el-Kubeibeh, meaning "little dome," is derived from the remains of the Crusaders' church yet to be found there. Others have identified it with the modern Khurbet Khamasa i.e., "the ruins of Khamasa", about 8 miles south-west of Jerusalem

Emmor - an ass, Acts 7:16. (See HAMOR.)

Encamp - An encampment was the resting-place for a longer or shorter period of an army or company of travellers (Ex. 13:20; 14:19; Josh. 10:5; 11:5).

The manner in which the Israelites encamped during their march through the wilderness is described in Num. 2 and 3. The order of the encampment (see CAMP ¯T0000700) was preserved in the march (Num. 2:17), the signal for which was the blast of two silver trumpets. Detailed regulations affecting the camp for sanitary purposes are given (Lev. 4:11, 12; 6:11; 8:17; 10:4, 5; 13:46; 14:3; Num. 12:14, 15; 31:19; Deut. 23:10, 12).

Criminals were executed without the camp (Lev. 4:12; comp. John 19:17, 20), and there also the young bullock for a sin-offering was burnt (Lev. 24:14; comp. Heb. 13:12).

In the subsequent history of Israel frequent mention is made of their encampments in the time of war (Judg. 7:18; 1 Sam. 13:2, 3, 16, 23; 17:3; 29:1; 30:9, 24). The temple was sometimes called "the camp of the Lord" (2 Chr. 31:2, R.V.; comp. Ps. 78:28). The multitudes who flocked to David are styled "a great host (i.e., "camp;" Heb. mahaneh), like the host of God" (1 Chr. 12:22).

Enchantments - (1.) The rendering of Hebrew latim_ or _lehatim, which means "something covered," "muffled up;" secret arts, tricks (Ex. 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18), by which the Egyptian magicians imposed on the credulity of Pharaoh.

(2.) The rendering of the Hebrew keshaphim, "muttered spells" or "incantations," rendered "sorceries" in Isa. 47:9, 12, i.e., the using of certain formulae under the belief that men could thus be bound.

(3.) Hebrew lehashim, "charming," as of serpents (Jer. 8:17; comp. Ps. 58:5).

(4.) Hebrew nehashim, the enchantments or omens used by Balaam (Num. 24:1); his endeavouring to gain omens favourable to his design.

(5.) Hebrew heber (Isa. 47:9, 12), "magical spells." All kinds of enchantments were condemned by the Mosaic law (Lev. 19:26; Deut. 18:10-12). (See DIVINATION.)

End - in Heb. 13:7, is the rendering of the unusual Greek word ekbasin, meaning "outcome", i.e., death. It occurs only elsewhere in 1 Cor. 10:13, where it is rendered "escape."

Endor - fountain of Dor; i.e., "of the age", a place in the territory of Issachar (Josh. 17:11) near the scene of the great victory which was gained by Deborah and Barak over Sisera and Jabin (comp. Ps. 83:9, 10). To Endor, Saul resorted to consult one reputed to be a witch on the eve of his last engagement with the Philistines (1 Sam. 28:7). It is identified with the modern village of Endur, "a dirty hamlet of some twenty houses, or rather huts, most of them falling to ruin," on the northern slope of Little Hermon, about 7 miles from Jezreel.

En-eglaim - fountain of two calves, a place mentioned only in Ezek. 47:10. Somewhere near the Dead Sea.

En-gannim - fountain of gardens. (1.) A town in the plains of Judah (Josh. 15:34), north-west of Jerusalem, between Zanoah and Tappuah. It is the modern Umm Jina.

(2.) A city on the border of Machar (Josh. 19:21), allotted to the Gershonite Levites (21:29). It is identified with the modern Jenin, a large and prosperous town of about 4,000 inhabitants, situated 15 miles south of Mount Tabor, through which the road from Jezreel to Samaria and Jerusalem passes. When Ahaziah, king of Judah, attempted to escape from Jehu, he "fled by the way of the garden house" i.e., by way of En-gannim. Here he was overtaken by Jehu and wounded in his chariot, and turned aside and fled to Megiddo, a distance of about 20 miles, to die there.

Engedi - fountain of the kid, place in the wilderness of Judah (Josh. 15:62), on the western shore of the Dead Sea (Ezek. 47:10), and nearly equidistant from both extremities. To the wilderness near this town David fled for fear of Saul (Josh. 15:62; 1 Sam. 23:29). It was at first called Hazezon-tamar (Gen. 14:7), a city of the Amorites.

The vineyards of Engedi were celebrated in Solomon's time (Cant. 1:4). It is the modern 'Ain Jidy. The "fountain" from which it derives its name rises on the mountain side about 600 feet above the sea, and in its rapid descent spreads luxuriance all around it. Along its banks the osher grows abundantly. That shrub is thus described by Porter: "The stem is stout, measuring sometimes nearly a foot in diameter, and the plant grows to the height of 15 feet or more. It has a grayish bark and long oval leaves, which when broken off discharge a milky fluid. The fruit resembles an apple, and hangs in clusters of two or three. When ripe it is of a rich yellow colour, but on being pressed it explodes like a puff-ball. It is chiefly filled with air...This is the so-called 'apple of Sodom.'" Through Samaria, etc. (See APPLE.)

Engines - (1.) Heb. hishalon i.e., "invention" (as in Eccl. 7:29) contrivances indicating ingenuity. In 2 Chr. 26:15 it refers to inventions for the purpose of propelling missiles from the walls of a town, such as stones (the Roman balista) and arrows (the catapulta).

(2.) Heb. mechi kobollo, i.e., the beating of that which is in front a battering-ram (Ezek. 26:9), the use of which was common among the Egyptians and the Assyrians. Such an engine is mentioned in the reign of David (2 Sam. 20:15).

Engraver - Heb. harash (Ex. 35:35; 38:23) means properly an artificer in wood, stone, or metal. The chief business of the engraver was cutting names or devices on rings and seals and signets (Ex. 28:11, 21, 36; Gen. 38:18).

En-hakkore - fountain of the crier, the name of the spring in Lehi which burst forth in answer to Samson's prayer when he was exhausted with the slaughter of the Philistines (Judg. 15:19). It has been identified with the spring 'Ayun Kara, near Zoreah.

Enmity - deep-rooted hatred. "I will put enmity between thee and the woman, between thy seed and her seed" (Gen. 3:15). The friendship of the world is "enmity with God" (James 4:4; 1 John 2:15, 16). The "carnal mind" is "enmity against God" (Rom. 8:7). By the abrogation of the Mosaic institutes the "enmity" between Jew and Gentile is removed. They are reconciled, are "made one" (Eph. 2:15, 16).

Enoch - initiated. (1.) The eldest son of Cain (Gen. 4:17), who built a city east of Eden in the land of Nod, and called it "after the name of his son Enoch." This is the first "city" mentioned in Scripture.

(2.) The son of Jared, and father of Methuselah (Gen. 5:21; Luke 3:37). His father was one hundred and sixty-two years old when he was born. After the birth of Methuselah, Enoch "walked with God three hundred years" (Gen. 5:22-24), when he was translated without tasting death. His whole life on earth was three hundred and sixty-five years. He was the "seventh from Adam" (Jude 1:14), as distinguished from the son of Cain, the third from Adam. He is spoken of in the catalogue of Old Testament worthies in the Epistle to the Hebrews (11:5). When he was translated, only Adam, so far as recorded, had as yet died a natural death, and Noah was not yet born. Mention is made of Enoch's prophesying only in Jude 1:14.

Enos - man the son of Seth, and grandson of Adam (Gen. 5:6-11; Luke 3:38). He lived nine hundred and five years. In his time "men began to call upon the name of the Lord" (Gen. 4:26), meaning either (1) then began men to call themselves by the name of the Lord (marg.) i.e., to distinguish themselves thereby from idolaters; or (2) then men in some public and earnest way began to call upon the Lord, indicating a time of spiritual revival.

En-rogel - fountain of the treaders; i.e., "foot-fountain;" also called the "fullers' fountain," because fullers here trod the clothes in water. It has been identified with the "fountain of the virgin" (q.v.), the modern 'Ain Ummel-Daraj. Others identify it, with perhaps some probability, with the Bir Eyub, to the south of the Pool of Siloam, and below the junction of the valleys of Kidron and Hinnom. (See FOUNTAIN.)

It was at this fountain that Jonathan and Ahimaaz lay hid after the flight of David (2 Sam. 17:17); and here also Adonijah held the feast when he aspired to the throne of his father (1 Kings 1:9).

The Bir Eyub, or "Joab's well," "is a singular work of ancient enterprise. The shaft sunk through the solid rock in the bed of the Kidron is 125 feet deep...The water is pure and entirely sweet, quite different from that of Siloam; which proves that there is no connection between them." Thomson's Land and the Book.

En-shemesh - fountain of the sun a spring which formed one of the landmarks on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 15:7; 18:17). It was between the "ascent of Adummim" and the spring of En-rogel, and hence was on the east of Jerusalem and of the Mount of Olives. It is the modern 'Ain-Haud i.e., the "well of the apostles" about a mile east of Bethany, the only spring on the road to Jericho. The sun shines on it the whole day long.

Ensign - (1.) Heb. 'oth, a military standard, especially of a single tribe (Num. 2:2). Each separate tribe had its own "sign" or "ensign."

(2.) Heb. nes, a lofty signal, as a column or high pole (Num. 21:8, 9); a standard or signal or flag placed on high mountains to point out to the people a place of rendezvous on the irruption of an enemy (Isa. 5:26; 11:12; 18:3; 62:10; Jer. 4:6, 21; Ps. 60:4). This was an occasional signal, and not a military standard. Elevation and conspicuity are implied in the word.

(3.) The Hebrew word degel denotes the standard given to each of the four divisions of the host of the Israelites at the Exodus (Num. 1:52; 2:2; 10:14). In Cant. 2:4 it is rendered "banner." We have no definite information as to the nature of these military standards. (See BANNER.)

Entertain - Entertainments, "feasts," were sometimes connected with a public festival (Deut. 16:11, 14), and accompanied by offerings (1 Sam. 9:13), in token of alliances (Gen. 26:30); sometimes in connection with domestic or social events, as at the weaning of children (Gen. 21:8), at weddings (Gen. 29:22; John 2:1), on birth-days (Matt. 14:6), at the time of sheep-shearing (2 Sam. 13:23), and of vintage (Judg. 9:27), and at funerals (2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16:7).

The guests were invited by servants (Prov. 9:3; Matt. 22:3), who assigned them their respective places (1 Sam. 9:22; Luke 14:8; Mark 12:39). Like portions were sent by the master to each guest (1 Sam. 1:4; 2 Sam. 6:19), except when special honour was intended, when the portion was increased (Gen. 43:34).

The Israelites were forbidden to attend heathenish sacrificial entertainments (Ex. 34:15), because these were in honour of false gods, and because at such feast they would be liable to partake of unclean flesh (1 Cor. 10:28).

In the entertainments common in apostolic times among the Gentiles were frequent "revellings," against which Christians were warned (Rom. 13:13; Gal. 5:21; 1 Pet. 4:3). (See BANQUET.)

Epaenetus - commendable, a Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent his salutation (Rom. 16:5). He is spoken of as "the first fruits of Achaia" (R.V., "of Asia", i.e., of proconsular Asia, which is probably the correct reading). As being the first convert in that region, he was peculiarly dear to the apostle. He calls him his "well beloved."

Epaphras - lovely, spoken of by Paul (Col. 1:7; 4:12) as "his dear fellow-servant," and "a faithful minister of Christ." He was thus evidently with him at Rome when he wrote to the Colossians. He was a distinguished disciple, and probably the founder of the Colossian church. He is also mentioned in the Epistle to Philemon (1:23), where he is called by Paul his "fellow-prisoner."

Epaphroditus - fair, graceful; belonging to Aphrodite or Venus the messenger who came from Phillipi to the apostle when he was a prisoner at Rome (Phil. 2:25-30; 4:10-18). Paul mentions him in words of esteem and affection. On his return to Philippi he was the bearer of Paul's letter to the church there.

Ephah - gloom. (1.) One of the five sons of Midian, and grandson of Abraham (Gen. 25:4). The city of Ephah, to which he gave his name, is mentioned Isa. 60:6, 7. This city, with its surrounding territory, formed part of Midian, on the east shore of the Dead Sea. It abounded in dromedaries and camels (Judg. 6:5).

(2.) 1 Chr. 2:46, a concubine of Caleb.

(3.) 1 Chr. 2:47, a descendant of Judah.

Ephah, a word of Egyptian origin, meaning measure; a grain measure containing "three seahs or ten omers," and equivalent to the bath for liquids (Ex. 16:36; 1 Sam. 17:17; Zech. 5:6). The double ephah in Prov. 20:10 (marg., "an ephah and an ephah"), Deut. 25:14, means two ephahs, the one false and the other just.

Epher - a calf. (1.) One of the sons of Midian, who was Abraham's son by Keturah (Gen. 25:4).

(2.) The head of one of the families of trans-Jordanic Manasseh who were carried captive by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr. 5:24).

Ephes-dammim - boundary of blood, a place in the tribe of Judah where the Philistines encamped when David fought with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). It was probably so called as having been the scene of frequent sanguinary conflicts between Israel and the Philistines. It is called Pas-dammim (1 Chr. 11:13). It has been identified with the modern Beit Fased, i.e., "house of bleeding", near Shochoh (q.v.).

Ephesians, Epistle to - was written by Paul at Rome about the same time as that to the Colossians, which in many points it resembles.

Contents of. The Epistle to the Colossians is mainly polemical, designed to refute certain theosophic errors that had crept into the church there. That to the Ephesians does not seem to have originated in any special circumstances, but is simply a letter springing from Paul's love to the church there, and indicative of his earnest desire that they should be fully instructed in the profound doctrines of the gospel. It contains (1) the salutation (1:1, 2); (2) a general description of the blessings the gospel reveals, as to their source, means by which they are attained, purpose for which they are bestowed, and their final result, with a fervent prayer for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians (1:3-2:10); (3) "a record of that marked change in spiritual position which the Gentile believers now possessed, ending with an account of the writer's selection to and qualification for the apostolate of heathendom, a fact so considered as to keep them from being dispirited, and to lead him to pray for enlarged spiritual benefactions on his absent sympathizers" (2:12-3:21); (4) a chapter on unity as undisturbed by diversity of gifts (4:1-16); (5) special injunctions bearing on ordinary life (4:17-6:10); (6) the imagery of a spiritual warfare, mission of Tychicus, and valedictory blessing (6:11-24).

Planting of the church at Ephesus. Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18:19-21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos (24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla. On his second visit, early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus "three years," for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door and effectual" was opened to him (1 Cor. 16:9), and the church was established and strengthened by his assiduous labours there (Acts 20:20, 31). From Ephesus as a centre the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia" (19:26). The word "mightily grew and prevailed" despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.

On his last journey to Jerusalem the apostle landed at Miletus, and summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them his remarkable farewell charge (Acts 20:18-35), expecting to see them no more.

The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced:

(1.) Acts 20:19 = Eph. 4:2. The phrase "lowliness of mind" occurs nowhere else.

(2.) Acts 20:27 = Eph. 1:11. The word "counsel," as denoting the divine plan, occurs only here and Heb. 6:17.

(3.) Acts 20:32 = Eph. 3:20. The divine ability.

(4.) Acts 20:32 = Eph. 2:20. The building upon the foundation.

(5.) Acts 20:32 = Eph. 1:14, 18. "The inheritance of the saints."

Place and date of the writing of the letter. It was evidently written from Rome during Paul's first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and probably soon after his arrival there, about the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. The subscription of this epistle is correct.

There seems to have been no special occasion for the writing of this letter, as already noted. Paul's object was plainly not polemical. No errors had sprung up in the church which he sought to point out and refute. The object of the apostle is "to set forth the ground, the cause, and the aim and end of the church of the faithful in Christ. He speaks to the Ephesians as a type or sample of the church universal." The church's foundations, its course, and its end, are his theme. "Everywhere the foundation of the church is the will of the Father; the course of the church is by the satisfaction of the Son; the end of the church is the life in the Holy Spirit." In the Epistle to the Romans, Paul writes from the point of view of justification by the imputed righteousness of Christ; here he writes from the point of view specially of union to the Redeemer, and hence of the oneness of the true church of Christ. "This is perhaps the profoundest book in existence." It is a book "which sounds the lowest depths of Christian doctrine, and scales the loftiest heights of Christian experience;" and the fact that the apostle evidently expected the Ephesians to understand it is an evidence of the "proficiency which Paul's converts had attained under his preaching at Ephesus."

Relation between this epistle and that to the Colossians (q.v.). "The letters of the apostle are the fervent outburst of pastoral zeal and attachment, written without reserve and in unaffected simplicity; sentiments come warm from the heart, without the shaping out, pruning, and punctilious arrangement of a formal discourse. There is such a fresh and familiar transcription of feeling, so frequent an introduction of coloquial idiom, and so much of conversational frankness and vivacity, that the reader associates the image of the writer with every paragraph, and the ear seems to catch and recognize the very tones of living address." "Is it then any matter of amazement that one letter should resemble another, or that two written about the same time should have so much in common and so much that is peculiar? The close relation as to style and subject between the epistles to Colosse and Ephesus must strike every reader. Their precise relation to each other has given rise to much discussion. The great probability is that the epistle to Colosse was first written; the parallel passages in Ephesians, which amount to about forty-two in number, having the appearance of being expansions from the epistle to Colosse. Compare:

Eph 1:7; Col 1:14 Eph 1:10; Col 1:20 Eph 3:2; Col 1:25 Eph 5:19; Col 3:16 Eph 6:22; Col 4:8 Eph 1:19-2:5; Col 2:12,13 Eph 4:2-4; Col 3:12-15 Eph 4:16; Col 2:19 Eph 4:32; Col 3:13 Eph 4:22-24; Col 3:9,10 Eph 5:6-8; Col 3:6-8 Eph 5:15,16; Col 4:5 Eph 6:19,20; Col 4:3,4 Eph 5:22-6:9; Col 3:18-4:1

"The style of this epistle is exceedingly animated, and corresponds with the state of the apostle's mind at the time of writing. Overjoyed with the account which their messenger had brought him of their faith and holiness (Eph. 1:15), and transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God displayed in the work of man's redemption, and of his astonishing love towards the Gentiles in making them partakers through faith of all the benefits of Christ's death, he soars high in his sentiments on those grand subjects, and gives his thoughts utterance in sublime and copious expression."

Ephesus - the capital of proconsular Asia, which was the western part of Asia Minor. It was colonized principally from Athens. In the time of the Romans it bore the title of "the first and greatest metropolis of Asia." It was distinguished for the Temple of Diana (q.v.), who there had her chief shrine; and for its theatre, which was the largest in the world, capable of containing 50,000 spectators. It was, like all ancient theatres, open to the sky. Here were exhibited the fights of wild beasts and of men with beasts. (Comp. 1 Cor. 4:9; 9:24, 25; 15:32.)

Many Jews took up their residence in this city, and here the seeds of the gospel were sown immediately after Pentecost (Acts 2:9; 6:9). At the close of his second missionary journey (about A.D. 51), when Paul was returning from Greece to Syria (18:18-21), he first visited this city. He remained, however, for only a short time, as he was hastening to keep the feast, probably of Pentecost, at Jerusalem; but he left Aquila and Priscilla behind him to carry on the work of spreading the gospel.

During his third missionary journey Paul reached Ephesus from the "upper coasts" (Acts 19:1), i.e., from the inland parts of Asia Minor, and tarried here for about three years; and so successful and abundant were his labours that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks" (19:10). Probably during this period the seven churches of the Apocalypse were founded, not by Paul's personal labours, but by missionaries whom he may have sent out from Ephesus, and by the influence of converts returning to their homes.

On his return from his journey, Paul touched at Miletus, some 30 miles south of Ephesus (Acts 20:15), and sending for the presbyters of Ephesus to meet him there, he delivered to them that touching farewell charge which is recorded in Acts 20:18-35. Ephesus is not again mentioned till near the close of Paul's life, when he writes to Timothy exhorting him to "abide still at Ephesus" (1 Tim. 1:3).

Two of Paul's companions, Trophimus and Tychicus, were probably natives of Ephesus (Acts 20:4; 21:29; 2 Tim. 4:12). In his second epistle to Timothy, Paul speaks of Onesiphorus as having served him in many things at Ephesus (2 Tim. 1:18). He also "sent Tychicus to Ephesus" (4:12), probably to attend to the interests of the church there. Ephesus is twice mentioned in the Apocalypse (1:11; 2:1).

The apostle John, according to tradition, spent many years in Ephesus, where he died and was buried.

A part of the site of this once famous city is now occupied by a small Turkish village, Ayasaluk, which is regarded as a corruption of the two Greek words, hagios theologos; i.e., "the holy divine."

Ephod - something girt, a sacred vestment worn originally by the high priest (Ex. 28:4), afterwards by the ordinary priest (1 Sam. 22:18), and characteristic of his office (1 Sam. 2:18, 28; 14:3). It was worn by Samuel, and also by David (2 Sam. 6:14). It was made of fine linen, and consisted of two pieces, which hung from the neck, and covered both the back and front, above the tunic and outer garment (Ex. 28:31). That of the high priest was embroidered with divers colours. The two pieces were joined together over the shoulders (hence in Latin called superhumerale) by clasps or buckles of gold or precious stones, and fastened round the waist by a "curious girdle of gold, blue, purple, and fine twined linen" (28:6-12).

The breastplate, with the Urim and Thummim, was attached to the ephod.

Ephphatha - the Greek form of a Syro-Chaldaic or Aramaic word, meaning "Be opened," uttered by Christ when healing the man who was deaf and dumb (Mark 7:34). It is one of the characteristics of Mark that he uses the very Aramaic words which fell from our Lord's lips. (See 3:17; 5:41; 7:11; 14:36; 15:34.)

Ephraim - double fruitfulness ("for God had made him fruitful in the land of his affliction"). The second son of Joseph, born in Egypt (Gen. 41:52; 46:20). The first incident recorded regarding him is his being placed, along with his brother Manasseh, before their grandfather, Jacob, that he might bless them (48:10; comp. 27:1). The intention of Joseph was that the right hand of the aged patriarch should be placed on the head of the elder of the two; but Jacob set Ephraim the younger before his brother, "guiding his hands wittingly." Before Joseph's death, Ephraim's family had reached the third generation (Gen. 50:23).

Ephraim, Gate of - one of the gates of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr. 25:23), on the side of the city looking toward Ephraim, the north side.

Ephraim in the wilderness - (John 11: 54), a town to which our Lord retired with his disciples after he had raised Lazarus, and when the priests were conspiring against him. It lay in the wild, uncultivated hill-country to the north-east of Jerusalem, betwen the central towns and the Jordan valley.

Ephraim, Mount - the central mountainous district of Palestine occupied by the tribe of Ephraim (Josh. 17:15; 19:50; 20:7), extending from Bethel to the plain of Jezreel. In Joshua's time (Josh. 17:18) these hills were densely wooded. They were intersected by well-watered, fertile valleys, referred to in Jer. 50:19. Joshua was buried at Timnath-heres among the mountains of Ephraim, on the north side of the hill of Gaash (Judg. 2:9). This region is also called the "mountains of Israel" (Josh. 11:21) and the "mountains of Samaria" (Jer. 31:5, 6: Amos 3:9).

Ephraim, The tribe of - took precedence over that of Manasseh by virtue of Jacob's blessing (Gen. 41:52; 48:1). The descendants of Joseph formed two of the tribes of Israel, whereas each of the other sons of Jacob was the founder of only one tribe. Thus there were in reality thirteen tribes; but the number twelve was preserved by excluding that of Levi when Ephraim and Manasseh are mentioned separately (Num. 1:32-34; Josh. 17:14, 17; 1 Chr. 7:20).

Territory of. At the time of the first census in the wilderness this tribe numbered 40,500 (Num. 1:32, 33); forty years later, when about to take possession of the Promised Land, it numbered only 32,500. During the march (see CAMP ¯T0000700) Ephraim's place was on the west side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:18-24). When the spies were sent out to spy the land, "Oshea the son of Nun" of this tribe signalized himself.

The boundaries of the portion of the land assigned to Ephraim are given in Josh. 16:1-10. It included most of what was afterwards called Samaria as distinguished from Judea and Galilee. It thus lay in the centre of all traffic, from north to south, and from Jordan to the sea, and was about 55 miles long and 30 broad. The tabernacle and the ark were deposited within its limits at Shiloh, where it remained for four hundred years. During the time of the judges and the first stage of the monarchy this tribe manifested a domineering and haughty and discontented spirit. "For more than five hundred years, a period equal to that which elapsed between the Norman Conquest and the War of the Roses, Ephraim, with its two dependent tribes of Manasseh and Benjamin, exercised undisputed pre-eminence. Joshua the first conqueror, Gideon the greatest of the judges, and Saul the first king, belonged to one or other of the three tribes. It was not till the close of the first period of Jewish history that God 'refused the tabernacle of Joseph, and chose not the tribe of Ephraim, but chose the tribe of Judah, the Mount Zion which he loved' (Ps. 78:67, 68). When the ark was removed from Shiloh to Zion the power of Ephraim was humbled."

Among the causes which operated to bring about the disruption of Israel was Ephraim's jealousy of the growing power of Judah. From the settlement of Canaan till the time of David and Solomon, Ephraim had held the place of honour among the tribes. It occupied the central and fairest portions of the land, and had Shiloh and Shechem within its borders. But now when Jerusalem became the capital of the kingdom, and the centre of power and worship for the whole nation of Israel, Ephraim declined in influence. The discontent came to a crisis by Rehoboam's refusal to grant certain redresses that were demanded (1 Kings 12).

Ephraim, Wood of - a forest in which a fatal battle was fought between the army of David and that of Absalom, who was killed there (2 Sam. 18:6, 8). It lay on the east of Jordan, not far from Mahanaim, and was some part of the great forest of Gilead.

Ephratah - fruitful. (1.) The second wife of Caleb, the son of Hezron, mother of Hur, and grandmother of Caleb, who was one of those that were sent to spy the land (1 Chr. 2:19, 50).

(2.) The ancient name of Bethlehem in Judah (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7). In Ruth 1:2 it is called "Bethlehem-Judah," but the inhabitants are called "Ephrathites;" in Micah 5:2, "Bethlehem-Ephratah;" in Matt. 2:6, "Bethlehem in the land of Judah." In Ps. 132:6 it is mentioned as the place where David spent his youth, and where he heard much of the ark, although he never saw it till he found it long afterwards at Kirjath-jearim; i.e., the "city of the wood," or the "forest-town" (1 Sam. 7:1; comp. 2 Sam. 6:3, 4).

Ephrathite - a citizen of Ephratah, the old name of Bethlehem (Ruth 1:2; 1 Sam. 17:12), or Bethlehem-Judah.

Ephron - fawn-like. (1.) The son of Zohar a Hittite, the owner of the field and cave of Machpelah (q.v.), which Abraham bought for 400 shekels of silver (Gen. 23:8-17; 25:9; 49:29, 30).

(2.) A mountain range which formed one of the landmarks on the north boundary of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:9), probably the range on the west side of the Wady Beit-Hanina.

Epicureans - followers of Epicurus (who died at Athens B.C. 270), or adherents of the Epicurean philosophy (Acts 17:18). This philosophy was a system of atheism, and taught men to seek as their highest aim a pleasant and smooth life. They have been called the "Sadducees" of Greek paganism. They, with the Stoics, ridiculed the teaching of Paul (Acts 17:18). They appear to have been greatly esteemed at Athens.

Epistles - the apostolic letters. The New Testament contains twenty-one in all. They are divided into two classes. (1.) Paul's Epistles, fourteen in number, including Hebrews. These are not arranged in the New Testament in the order of time as to their composition, but rather according to the rank of the cities or places to which they were sent. Who arranged them after this manner is unknown. Paul's letters were, as a rule, dictated to an amanuensis, a fact which accounts for some of their peculiarities. He authenticated them, however, by adding a few words in his own hand at the close. (See GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO.)

The epistles to Timothy and Titus are styled the Pastoral Epistles.

(2.) The Catholic or General Epistles, so called because they are not addressed to any particular church or city or individual, but to Christians in general, or to Christians in several countries. Of these, three are written by John, two by Peter, and one each by James and Jude.

It is an interesting and instructive fact that a large portion of the New Testament is taken up with epistles. The doctrines of Christianity are thus not set forth in any formal treatise, but mainly in a collection of letters. "Christianity was the first great missionary religion. It was the first to break the bonds of race and aim at embracing all mankind. But this necessarily involved a change in the mode in which it was presented. The prophet of the Old Testament, if he had anything to communicate, either appeared in person or sent messengers to speak for him by word of mouth. The narrow limits of Palestine made direct personal communication easy. But the case was different when the Christian Church came to consist of a number of scattered parts, stretching from Mesopotamia in the east to Rome or even Spain in the far west. It was only natural that the apostle by whom the greater number of these communities had been founded should seek to communicate with them by letter."

Erastus - beloved. (1.) The "chamberlain" of the city of Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and one of Paul's disciples. As treasurer of such a city he was a public officer of great dignity, and his conversion to the gospel was accordingly a proof of the wonderful success of the apostle's labours.

(2.) A companion of Paul at Ephesus, who was sent by him along with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts 19:22). Corinth was his usual place of abode (2 Tim. 4:20); but probably he may have been the same as the preceding.

Erech - (LXX., "Orech"), length, or Moon-town, one of the cities of Nimrod's kingdom in the plain of Shinar (Gen. 10:10); the Orchoe of the Greeks and Romans. It was probably the city of the Archevites, who were transplanted to Samaria by Asnapper (Ezra 4:9). It lay on the left bank of the Euphrates, about 120 miles south-east of Babylon, and is now represented by the mounds and ruins of Warka. It appears to have been the necropolis of the Assyrian kings, as the whole region is strewed with bricks and the remains of coffins. "Standing on the summit of the principal edifice, called the Buwarizza, a tower 200 feet square in the centre of the ruins, the beholder is struck with astonishment at the enormous accumulation of mounds and ancient relics at his feet. An irregular circle, nearly 6 miles in circumference, is defined by the traces of an earthen rampart, in some places 40 feet high."

Esaias - the Greek form for Isaiah, constantly used in the Authorized Version of the New Testament (Matt. 3:3; 4:14), but in the Revised Version always "Isaiah."

Esarhaddon - Assur has given a brother, successor of Sennacherib (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). He ascended the throne about B.C. 681. Nothing further is recorded of him in Scripture, except that he settled certain colonists in Samaria (Ezra 4:2). But from the monuments it appears that he was the most powerful of all the Assyrian monarchs. He built many temples and palaces, the most magnificent of which was the south-west palace at Nimrud, which is said to have been in its general design almost the same as Solomon's palace, only much larger (1 Kings 7:1-12).

In December B.C. 681 Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons, who, after holding Nineveh for forty-two days, were compelled to fly to Erimenas of Ararat, or Armenia. Their brother Esarhaddon, who had been engaged in a campaign against Armenia, led his army against them. They were utterly overthrown in a battle fought April B.C. 680, near Malatiyeh, and in the following month Esarhaddon was crowned at Nineveh. He restored Babylon, conquered Egypt, and received tribute from Manasseh of Judah. He died in October B.C. 668, while on the march to suppress an Egyptian revolt, and was succeeded by his son Assur-bani-pal, whose younger brother was made viceroy of Babylonia.

Esau - hairy, Rebekah's first-born twin son (Gen. 25:25). The name of Edom, "red", was also given to him from his conduct in connection with the red lentil "pottage" for which he sold his birthright (30, 31). The circumstances connected with his birth foreshadowed the enmity which afterwards subsisted between the twin brothers and the nations they founded (25:22, 23, 26). In process of time Jacob, following his natural bent, became a shepherd; while Esau, a "son of the desert," devoted himself to the perilous and toilsome life of a huntsman. On a certain occasion, on returning from the chase, urged by the cravings of hunger, Esau sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob, who thereby obtained the covenant blessing (Gen. 27:28, 29, 36; Heb. 12:16, 17). He afterwards tried to regain what he had so recklessly parted with, but was defeated in his attempts through the stealth of his brother (Gen. 27:4, 34, 38).

At the age of forty years, to the great grief of his parents, he married (Gen. 26:34, 35) two Canaanitish maidens, Judith, the daughter of Beeri, and Bashemath, the daughter of Elon. When Jacob was sent away to Padan-aram, Esau tried to conciliate his parents (Gen. 28:8, 9) by marrying his cousin Mahalath, the daughter of Ishmael. This led him to cast in his lot with the Ishmaelite tribes; and driving the Horites out of Mount Seir, he settled in that region. After some thirty years' sojourn in Padan-aram Jacob returned to Canaan, and was reconciled to Esau, who went forth to meet him (33:4). Twenty years after this, Isaac their father died, when the two brothers met, probably for the last time, beside his grave (35:29). Esau now permanently left Canaan, and established himself as a powerful and wealthy chief in the land of Edom (q.v.).

Long after this, when the descendants of Jacob came out of Egypt, the Edomites remembered the old quarrel between the brothers, and with fierce hatred they warred against Israel.

Eschew - from old French eschever, "to flee from" (Job 1:1, 8; 2:3; 1 Pet. 3:11).

Esdraelon - the Greek form of the Hebrew "Jezreel," the name of the great plain (called by the natives Merj Ibn Amer; i.e., "the meadow of the son of Amer") which stretches across Central Palestine from the Jordan to the Mediterraanean, separating the mountain ranges of Carmel and Samaria from those of Galilee, extending about 14 miles from north to south, and 9 miles from east to west. It is drained by "that ancient river" the Kishon, which flows westward to the Mediterranean. From the foot of Mount Tabor it branches out into three valleys, that on the north passing between Tabor and Little Hermon (Judg. 4:14); that on the south between Mount Gilboa and En-gannim (2 Kings 9:27); while the central portion, the "valley of Jezreel" proper, runs into the Jordan valley (which is about 1,000 feet lower than Esdraelon) by Bethshean. Here Gideon gained his great victory over the Midianites (Judg. 7:1-25). Here also Barak defeated Sisera, and Saul's army was defeated by the Philistines, and king Josiah, while fighting in disguise against Necho, king of Egypt, was slain (2 Chr. 35:20-27; 2 Kings 23-29). This plain has been well called the "battle-field of Palestine." "It has been a chosen place for encampment in every contest carried on in this country, from the days of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, in the history of whose wars with Arphaxad it is mentioned as the Great Plain of Esdraelon, until the disastrous march of Napoleon Bonaparte from Egypt into Syria. Jews, Gentiles, Saracens, Crusaders, Frenchmen, Egyptians, Persians, Druses, Turks, and Arabs, warriors out of every nation which is under heaven, have pitched their tents in the plain, and have beheld the various banners of their nations wet with the dews of Tabor and Hermon" (Dr. Clark).

Esek - quarrel, a well which Isaac's herdsmen dug in the valley of Gerar, and so called because the herdsmen of Gerar quarrelled with them for its possession (Gen. 26:20).

Eshbaal - man of Baal, the fourth son of king Saul (1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39). He is also called Ish-bosheth (q.v.), 2 Sam. 2:8.

Eshcol - bunch; brave. (1.) A young Amoritish chief who joined Abraham in the recovery of Lot from the hands of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:13, 24).

(2.) A valley in which the spies obtained a fine cluster of grapes (Num. 13:23, 24; "the brook Eshcol," A.V.; "the valley of Eshcol," R.V.), which they took back with them to the camp of Israel as a specimen of the fruits of the Promised Land. On their way back they explored the route which led into the south (the Negeb) by the western edge of the mountains at Telilat el-'Anab, i.e., "grape-mounds", near Beersheba. "In one of these extensive valleys, perhaps in Wady Hanein, where miles of grape-mounds even now meet the eye, they cut the gigantic clusters of grapes, and gathered the pomegranates and figs, to show how goodly was the land which the Lord had promised for their inheritance.", Palmer's Desert of the Exodus.

Eshean - a place in the mountains of Judah (Josh.15:52), supposed to be the ruin es-Simia, near Dumah, south of Hebron.

Eshtaol - narrow pass or recess, a town (Josh. 15:33) in the low country, the She-phelah of Judah. It was allotted to the tribe of Dan (Josh. 19:41), and was one of their strongholds. Here Samson spent his boyhood, and first began to show his mighty strength; and here he was buried in the burying-place of Manoah his father (Judg. 13:25; 16:31; 18:2, 8, 11, 12). It is identified with the modern Yeshua, on a hill 2 miles east of Zorah. Others, however, identify it with Kustul, east of Kirjath-jearim.

Eshtemoa - obedience, a town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 21:14; 1 Chr. 6:57), which was allotted, with the land round it, to the priests. It was frequented by David and his followers during their wanderings; and he sent presents of the spoil of the Amalekites to his friends there (1 Sam. 30:28). It is identified with es-Semu'a, a village about 3 1/2 miles east of Socoh, and 7 or 8 miles south of Hebron, around which there are ancient remains of the ruined city. It is the centre of the "south country" or Negeb. It is also called "Eshtemoh" (Josh. 15:50).

Espouse - (2 Sam. 3:14), to betroth. The espousal was a ceremony of betrothing, a formal agreement between the parties then coming under obligation for the purpose of marriage. Espousals are in the East frequently contracted years before the marriage is celebrated. It is referred to as figuratively illustrating the relations between God and his people (Jer. 2:2; Matt. 1:18; 2 Cor. 11:2). (See BETROTH.)

Essenes - a Jewish mystical sect somewhat resembling the Pharisees. They affected great purity. They originated about B.C. 100, and disappeared from history after the destruction of Jerusalem. They are not directly mentioned in Scripture, although they may be referred to in Matt. 19:11, 12, Col. 2:8, 18, 23.

Esther - the queen of Ahasuerus, and heroine of the book that bears her name. She was a Jewess named Hadas'sah (the myrtle), but when she entered the royal harem she received the name by which she henceforth became known (Esther 2:7). It is a Syro-Arabian modification of the Persian word satarah, which means a star. She was the daughter of Abihail, a Benjamite. Her family did not avail themselves of the permission granted by Cyrus to the exiles to return to Jerusalem; and she resided with her cousin Mordecai, who held some office in the household of the Persian king at "Shushan in the palace." Ahasuerus having divorced Vashti, chose Esther to be his wife. Soon after this he gave Haman the Agagite, his prime minister, power and authority to kill and extirpate all the Jews throughout the Persian empire. By the interposition of Esther this terrible catastrophe was averted. Haman was hanged on the gallows he had intended for Mordecai (Esther 7); and the Jews established an annual feast, the feast of Purim (q.v.), in memory of their wonderful deliverance. This took place about fifty-two years after the Return, the year of the great battles of Plataea and Mycale (B.C. 479).

Esther appears in the Bible as a "woman of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism, and caution, combined with resolution; a dutiful daughter to her adopted father, docile and obedient to his counsels, and anxious to share the king's favour with him for the good of the Jewish people. There must have been a singular grace and charm in her aspect and manners, since 'she obtained favour in the sight of all them that looked upon her' (Esther 2:15). That she was raised up as an instrument in the hand of God to avert the destruction of the Jewish people, and to afford them protection and forward their wealth and peace in their captivity, is also manifest from the Scripture account."

Esther, Book of - The authorship of this book is unknown. It must have been obviously written after the death of Ahasuerus (the Xerxes of the Greeks), which took place B.C. 465. The minute and particular account also given of many historical details makes it probable that the writer was contemporary with Mordecai and Esther. Hence we may conclude that the book was written probably about B.C. 444-434, and that the author was one of the Jews of the dispersion.

This book is more purely historical than any other book of Scripture; and it has this remarkable peculiarity that the name of God does not occur in it from first to last in any form. It has, however, been well observed that "though the name of God be not in it, his finger is." The book wonderfully exhibits the providential government of God.

Etam - eyrie. (1.) A village of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:32). Into some cleft ("top," A.V.,; R.V., "cleft") of a rock here Samson retired after his slaughter of the Philistines (Judg. 15:8, 11). It was a natural stronghold. It has been identified with Beit 'Atab, west of Bethlehem, near Zorah and Eshtaol. On the crest of a rocky knoll, under the village, is a long tunnel, which may be the "cleft" in which Samson hid.

(2.) A city of Judah, fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11:6). It was near Bethlehem and Tekoah, and some distance apparently to the north of (1). It seems to have been in the district called Nephtoah (or Netophah), where were the sources of the water from which Solomon's gardens and pleasure-grounds and pools, as well as Bethlehem and the temple, were supplied. It is now 'Ain 'Atan, at the head of the Wady Urtas, a fountain sending forth a copious supply of pure water.

Eternal death - The miserable fate of the wicked in hell (Matt. 25:46; Mark 3:29; Heb. 6:2; 2 Thess. 1:9; Matt. 18:8; 25:41; Jude 1:7). The Scripture as clearly teaches the unending duration of the penal sufferings of the lost as the "everlasting life," the "eternal life" of the righteous. The same Greek words in the New Testament (aion, aionios, aidios) are used to express (1) the eternal existence of God (1 Tim. 1:17; Rom. 1:20; 16:26); (2) of Christ (Rev. 1:18); (3) of the Holy Ghost (Heb. 9:14); and (4) the eternal duration of the sufferings of the lost (Matt. 25:46; Jude 1:6).

Their condition after casting off the mortal body is spoken of in these expressive words: "Fire that shall not be quenched" (Mark 9:45, 46), "fire unquenchable" (Luke 3:17), "the worm that never dies," the "bottomless pit" (Rev. 9:1), "the smoke of their torment ascending up for ever and ever" (Rev. 14:10, 11).

The idea that the "second death" (Rev. 20:14) is in the case of the wicked their absolute destruction, their annihilation, has not the slightest support from Scripture, which always represents their future as one of conscious suffering enduring for ever.

The supposition that God will ultimately secure the repentance and restoration of all sinners is equally unscriptural. There is not the slightest trace in all the Scriptures of any such restoration. Sufferings of themselves have no tendency to purify the soul from sin or impart spiritual life. The atoning death of Christ and the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit are the only means of divine appointment for bringing men to repentance. Now in the case of them that perish these means have been rejected, and "there remaineth no more sacrifice for sins" (Heb. 10:26, 27).

Eternal life - This expression occurs in the Old Testament only in Dan. 12:2 (R.V., "everlasting life").

It occurs frequently in the New Testament (Matt. 7:14; 18:8, 9; Luke 10:28; comp. 18:18). It comprises the whole future of the redeemed (Luke 16:9), and is opposed to "eternal punishment" (Matt. 19:29; 25:46). It is the final reward and glory into which the children of God enter (1 Tim. 6:12, 19; Rom. 6:22; Gal. 6:8; 1 Tim. 1:16; Rom. 5:21); their Sabbath of rest (Heb. 4:9; comp. 12:22).

The newness of life which the believer derives from Christ (Rom. 6:4) is the very essence of salvation, and hence the life of glory or the eternal life must also be theirs (Rom. 6:8; 2 Tim. 2:11, 12; Rom. 5:17, 21; 8:30; Eph. 2:5, 6). It is the "gift of God in Jesus Christ our Lord" (Rom. 6:23). The life the faithful have here on earth (John 3:36; 5:24; 6:47, 53-58) is inseparably connected with the eternal life beyond, the endless life of the future, the happy future of the saints in heaven (Matt. 19:16, 29; 25:46).

Etham - perhaps another name for Khetam, or "fortress," on the Shur or great wall of Egypt, which extended from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Suez. Here the Israelites made their third encampment (Ex. 13:20; Num. 33:6). The camp was probably a little to the west of the modern town of Ismailia. Here the Israelites were commanded to change their route (Ex. 14:2), and "turn" towards the south, and encamp before Pi-hahiroth. (See EXODUS ¯T0001283; PITHOM.)

Ethan - firm. (1.) "The Ezrahite," distinguished for his wisdom (1 Kings 4:31). He is named as the author of the 89th Psalm. He was of the tribe of Levi.

(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari, one of the leaders of the temple music (1 Chr. 6:44; 15:17, 19). He was probably the same as Jeduthun. He is supposed by some to be the same also as (1).

Ethanim - the month of gifts, i.e., of vintage offerings; called Tisri after the Exile; corresponding to part of September and October. It was the first month of the civil year, and the seventh of the sacred year (1 Kings 8:2).

Eth-baal - with Baal, a king of Sidon (B.C. 940-908), father of Jezebel, who was the wife of Ahab (1 Kings 16:31). He is said to have been also a priest of Astarte, whose worship was closely allied to that of Baal, and this may account for his daughter's zeal in promoting idolatry in Israel. This marriage of Ahab was most fatal to both Israel and Judah. Dido, the founder of Carthage, was his granddaughter.

Ethiopia - country of burnt faces; the Greek word by which the Hebrew Cush is rendered (Gen. 2:13; 2 Kings 19:9; Esther 1:1; Job 28:19; Ps. 68:31; 87:4), a country which lay to the south of Egypt, beginning at Syene on the First Cataract (Ezek. 29:10; 30:6), and extending to beyond the confluence of the White and Blue Nile. It corresponds generally with what is now known as the Soudan (i.e., the land of the blacks). This country was known to the Hebrews, and is described in Isa. 18:1; Zeph. 3:10. They carried on some commercial intercourse with it (Isa. 45:14).

Its inhabitants were descendants of Ham (Gen. 10:6; Jer. 13:23; Isa. 18:2, "scattered and peeled," A.V.; but in R.V., "tall and smooth"). Herodotus, the Greek historian, describes them as "the tallest and handsomest of men." They are frequently represented on Egyptian monuments, and they are all of the type of the true negro. As might be expected, the history of this country is interwoven with that of Egypt.

Ethiopia is spoken of in prophecy (Ps. 68:31; 87:4; Isa. 45:14; Ezek. 30:4-9; Dan. 11:43; Nah. 3:8-10; Hab. 3:7; Zeph. 2:12).

Ethiopian eunuch - the chief officer or prime minister of state of Candace (q.v.), queen of Ethiopia. He was converted to Christianity through the instrumentality of Philip (Act 8:27). The northern portion of Ethiopia formed the kingdom of Meroe, which for a long period was ruled over by queens, and it was probably from this kingdom that the eunuch came.

Ethiopian woman - the wife of Moses (Num. 12:1). It is supposed that Zipporah, Moses' first wife (Ex. 2:21), was now dead. His marriage of this "woman" descended from Ham gave offence to Aaron and Miriam.

Eunice - happily conquering, the mother of Timothy, a believing Jewess, but married to a Greek (Acts 16:1). She trained her son from his childhood in the knowledge of the Scriptures (2 Tim. 3:15). She was distinguished by her "unfeigned faith."

Eunuch - literally bed-keeper or chamberlain, and not necessarily in all cases one who was mutilated, although the practice of employing such mutilated persons in Oriental courts was common (2 Kings 9:32; Esther 2:3). The law of Moses excluded them from the congregation (Deut. 23:1). They were common also among the Greeks and Romans. It is said that even to-day there are some in Rome who are employed in singing soprano in the Sistine Chapel. Three classes of eunuchs are mentioned in Matt. 19:12.

Euodias - a good journey, a female member of the church at Philippi. She was one who laboured much with Paul in the gospel. He exhorts her to be of one mind with Syntyche (Phil. 4:2). From this it seems they had been at variance with each other.

Euphrates - Hebrew, Perath; Assyrian, Purat; Persian cuneiform, Ufratush, whence Greek Euphrates, meaning "sweet water." The Assyrian name means "the stream," or "the great stream." It is generally called in the Bible simply "the river" (Ex. 23:31), or "the great river" (Deut. 1:7).

The Euphrates is first mentioned in Gen. 2:14 as one of the rivers of Paradise. It is next mentioned in connection with the covenant which God entered into with Abraham (15:18), when he promised to his descendants the land from the river of Egypt to the river Euphrates (comp. Deut. 11:24; Josh. 1:4), a covenant promise afterwards fulfilled in the extended conquests of David (2 Sam. 8:2-14; 1 Chr. 18:3; 1 Kings 4:24). It was then the boundary of the kingdom to the north-east. In the ancient history of Assyria, and Babylon, and Egypt many events are recorded in which mention is made of the "great river." Just as the Nile represented in prophecy the power of Egypt, so the Euphrates represented the Assyrian power (Isa. 8:7; Jer. 2:18).

It is by far the largest and most important of all the rivers of Western Asia. From its source in the Armenian mountains to the Persian Gulf, into which it empties itself, it has a course of about 1,700 miles. It has two sources, (1) the Frat or Kara-su (i.e., "the black river"), which rises 25 miles north-east of Erzeroum; and (2) the Muradchai (i.e., "the river of desire"), which rises near Ararat, on the northern slope of Ala-tagh. At Kebban Maden, 400 miles from the source of the former, and 270 from that of the latter, they meet and form the majestic stream, which is at length joined by the Tigris at Koornah, after which it is called Shat-el-Arab, which runs in a deep and broad stream for above 140 miles to the sea. It is estimated that the alluvium brought down by these rivers encroaches on the sea at the rate of about one mile in thirty years.

Euroclydon - south-east billow, the name of the wind which blew in the Adriatic Gulf, and which struck the ship in which Paul was wrecked on the coast of Malta (Acts 27:14; R.V., "Euraquilo," i.e., north-east wind). It is called a "tempestuous wind," i.e., as literally rendered, a "typhonic wind," or a typhoon. It is the modern Gregalia or Levanter. (Comp. Jonah 1:4.)

Eutychus - fortunate, (Acts 20:9-12), a young man of Troas who fell through drowsiness from the open window of the third floor of the house where Paul was preaching, and was "taken up dead." The lattice-work of the window being open to admit the air, the lad fell out and down to the court below. Paul restored him to life again. (Comp. 1 Kings 17:21; 2 Kings 4:34.)

Evangelist - a "publisher of glad tidings;" a missionary preacher of the gospel (Eph. 4:11). This title is applied to Philip (Acts 21:8), who appears to have gone from city to city preaching the word (8:4, 40). Judging from the case of Philip, evangelists had neither the authority of an apostle, nor the gift of prophecy, nor the responsibility of pastoral supervision over a portion of the flock. They were itinerant preachers, having it as their special function to carry the gospel to places where it was previously unknown. The writers of the four Gospels are known as the Evangelists.

Eve - life; living, the name given by Adam to his wife (Gen. 3:20; 4:1). The account of her creation is given in Gen. 2:21, 22. The Creator, by declaring that it was not good for man to be alone, and by creating for him a suitable companion, gave sanction to monogamy. The commentator Matthew Henry says: "This companion was taken from his side to signify that she was to be dear unto him as his own flesh. Not from his head, lest she should rule over him; nor from his feet, lest he should tyrannize over her; but from his side, to denote that species of equality which is to subsist in the marriage state." And again, "That wife that is of God's making by special grace, and of God's bringing by special providence, is likely to prove a helpmeet to her husband." Through the subtle temptation of the serpent she violated the commandment of God by taking of the forbidden fruit, which she gave also unto her husband (1 Tim. 2:13-15; 2 Cor. 11:3). When she gave birth to her first son, she said, "I have gotten a man from the Lord" (R.V., "I have gotten a man with the help of the Lord," Gen. 4:1). Thus she welcomed Cain, as some think, as if he had been the Promised One the "Seed of the woman."

Evening - the period following sunset with which the Jewish day began (Gen. 1:5; Mark 13:35). The Hebrews reckoned two evenings of each day, as appears from Ex. 16:12: 30:8; 12:6 (marg.); Lev. 23:5 (marg. R.V., "between the two evenings"). The "first evening" was that period when the sun was verging towards setting, and the "second evening" the moment of actual sunset. The word "evenings" in Jer. 5:6 should be "deserts" (marg. R.V.).

Everlasting - eternal, applied to God (Gen. 21:33; Deut. 33:27; Ps. 41:13; 90:2). We also read of the "everlasting hills" (Gen. 49:26); an "everlasting priesthood" (Ex. 40:15; Num. 25:13). (See ETERNAL.)

Evil eye - (Prov. 23:6), figuratively, the envious or covetous. (Comp. Deut. 15:9; Matt. 20:15.)

Evil-merodach - Merodach's man, the son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (2 Kings 25:27; Jer. 52:31, 34). He seems to have reigned but two years (B.C. 562-560). Influenced probably by Daniel, he showed kindness to Jehoiachin, who had been a prisoner in Babylon for thirty-seven years. He released him, and "spoke kindly to him." He was murdered by Nergal-sharezer=Neriglissar, his brother-in-law, who succeeded him (Jer. 39:3, 13).

Evil-speaking - is expressly forbidden (Titus 3:2; James 4:11), and severe punishments are denounced against it (1 Cor. 5:11; 6:10). It is spoken of also with abhorrence (Ps. 15:3; Prov. 18:6, 7), and is foreign to the whole Christian character and the example of Christ.

Example - of Christ (1 Pet. 2:21; John 13:15); of pastors to their flocks (Phil. 3:17; 2 Thess. 3:9; 1 Tim. 4:12; 1 Pet. 5:3); of the Jews as a warning (Heb. 4:11); of the prophets as suffering affliction (James 5:10).

Executioner - (Mark 6:27). Instead of the Greek word, Mark here uses a Latin word, speculator, which literally means "a scout," "a spy," and at length came to denote one of the armed bodyguard of the emperor. Herod Antipas, in imitation of the emperor, had in attendance on him a company of speculatores. They were sometimes employed as executioners, but this was a mere accident of their office. (See MARK, GOSPEL OF.)

Exercise, bodily - (1 Tim. 4:8). An ascetic mortification of the flesh and denial of personal gratification (comp. Col. 2:23) to which some sects of the Jews, especially the Essenes, attached importance.

Exile - (1.) Of the kingdom of Israel. In the time of Pekah, Tiglath-pileser II. carried away captive into Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; comp. Isa. 10:5, 6) a part of the inhabitants of Galilee and of Gilead (B.C. 741).

After the destruction of Samaria (B.C. 720) by Shalmaneser and Sargon (q.v.), there was a general deportation of the Israelites into Mesopotamia and Media (2 Kings 17:6; 18:9; 1 Chr. 5:26). (See ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF.)

(2.) Of the kingdom of the two tribes, the kingdom of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim (Jer. 25:1), invaded Judah, and carried away some royal youths, including Daniel and his companions (B.C. 606), together with the sacred vessels of the temple (2 Chr. 36:7; Dan. 1:2). In B.C. 598 (Jer. 52:28; 2 Kings 24:12), in the beginning of Jehoiachin's reign (2 Kings 24:8), Nebuchadnezzar carried away captive 3,023 eminent Jews, including the king (2 Chr. 36:10), with his family and officers (2 Kings 24:12), and a large number of warriors (16), with very many persons of note (14), and artisans (16), leaving behind only those who were poor and helpless. This was the first general deportation to Babylon.

In B.C. 588, after the revolt of Zedekiah (q.v.), there was a second general deportation of Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 52:29; 2 Kings 25:8), including 832 more of the principal men of the kingdom. He carried away also the rest of the sacred vessels (2 Chr. 36:18). From this period, when the temple was destroyed (2 Kings 25:9), to the complete restoration, B.C. 517 (Ezra 6:15), is the period of the "seventy years."

In B.C. 582 occurred the last and final deportation. The entire number Nebuchadnezzar carried captive was 4,600 heads of families with their wives and children and dependants (Jer. 52:30; 43:5-7; 2 Chr. 36:20, etc.). Thus the exiles formed a very considerable community in Babylon.

When Cyrus granted permission to the Jews to return to their own land (Ezra 1:5; 7:13), only a comparatively small number at first availed themselves of the privilege. It cannot be questioned that many belonging to the kingdom of Israel ultimately joined the Jews under Ezra, Zerubbabel, and Nehemiah, and returned along with them to Jerusalem (Jer. 50:4, 5, 17-20, 33-35).

Large numbers had, however, settled in the land of Babylon, and formed numerous colonies in different parts of the kingdom. Their descendants very probably have spread far into Eastern lands and become absorbed in the general population. (See JUDAH, KINGDOM OF ¯T0002126; CAPTIVITY.)

Exodus - the great deliverance wrought for the children of Isreal when they were brought out of the land of Egypt with "a mighty hand and with an outstretched arm" (Ex 12:51; Deut. 26:8; Ps 114; 136), about B.C. 1490, and four hundred and eighty years (1 Kings 6:1) before the building of Solomon's temple.

The time of their sojourning in Egypt was, according to Ex. 12:40, the space of four hundred and thirty years. In the LXX., the words are, "The sojourning of the children of Israel which they sojourned in Egypt and in the land of Canaan was four hundred and thirty years;" and the Samaritan version reads, "The sojourning of the children of Israel and of their fathers which they sojourned in the land of Canaan and in the land of Egypt was four hundred and thirty years." In Gen. 15:13-16, the period is prophetically given (in round numbers) as four hundred years. This passage is quoted by Stephen in his defence before the council (Acts 7:6).

The chronology of the "sojourning" is variously estimated. Those who adopt the longer term reckon thus:

Others contend for the shorter period of two hundred and fifteen years, holding that the period of four hundred and thirty years comprehends the years from the entrance of Abraham into Canaan (see LXX. and Samaritan) to the descent of Jacob into Egypt. They reckon thus:

During the forty years of Moses' sojourn in the land of Midian, the Hebrews in Egypt were being gradually prepared for the great national crisis which was approaching. The plagues that successively fell upon the land loosened the bonds by which Pharaoh held them in slavery, and at length he was eager that they should depart. But the Hebrews must now also be ready to go. They were poor; for generations they had laboured for the Egyptians without wages. They asked gifts from their neighbours around them (Ex. 12:35), and these were readily bestowed. And then, as the first step towards their independent national organization, they observed the feast of the Passover, which was now instituted as a perpetual memorial. The blood of the paschal lamb was duly sprinkled on the door-posts and lintels of all their houses, and they were all within, waiting the next movement in the working out of God's plan. At length the last stroke fell on the land of Egypt. "It came to pass, that at midnight Jehovah smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt." Pharaoh rose up in the night, and called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said, "Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of Israel; and go, serve Jehovah, as ye have said. Also take your flocks and your herds, as ye have said, and be gone; and bless me also." Thus was Pharaoh (q.v.) completely humbled and broken down. These words he spoke to Moses and Aaron "seem to gleam through the tears of the humbled king, as he lamented his son snatched from him by so sudden a death, and tremble with a sense of the helplessness which his proud soul at last felt when the avenging hand of God had visited even his palace."

The terror-stricken Egyptians now urged the instant departure of the Hebrews. In the midst of the Passover feast, before the dawn of the 15th day of the month Abib (our April nearly), which was to be to them henceforth the beginning of the year, as it was the commencement of a new epoch in their history, every family, with all that appertained to it, was ready for the march, which instantly began under the leadership of the heads of tribes with their various sub-divisions. They moved onward, increasing as they went forward from all the districts of Goshen, over the whole of which they were scattered, to the common centre. Three or four days perhaps elapsed before the whole body of the people were assembled at Rameses, and ready to set out under their leader Moses (Ex. 12:37; Num. 33:3). This city was at that time the residence of the Egyptian court, and here the interviews between Moses and Pharaoh had taken place.

From Rameses they journeyed to Succoth (Ex. 12:37), identified with Tel-el-Maskhuta, about 12 miles west of Ismailia. (See PITHOM.) Their third station was Etham (q.v.), 13:20, "in the edge of the wilderness," and was probably a little to the west of the modern town of Ismailia, on the Suez Canal. Here they were commanded "to turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea", i.e., to change their route from east to due south. The Lord now assumed the direction of their march in the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. They were then led along the west shore of the Red Sea till they came to an extensive camping-ground "before Pi-hahiroth," about 40 miles from Etham. This distance from Etham may have taken three days to traverse, for the number of camping-places by no means indicates the number of days spent on the journey: e.g., it took fully a month to travel from Rameses to the wilderness of Sin (Ex. 16:1), yet reference is made to only six camping-places during all that time. The exact spot of their encampment before they crossed the Red Sea cannot be determined. It was probably somewhere near the present site of Suez.

Under the direction of God the children of Israel went "forward" from the camp "before Pi-hahiroth," and the sea opened a pathway for them, so that they crossed to the farther shore in safety. The Egyptian host pursued after them, and, attempting to follow through the sea, were overwhelmed in its returning waters, and thus the whole military force of the Egyptians perished. They "sank as lead in the mighty waters" (Ex. 15:1-9; comp. Ps. 77:16-19).

Having reached the eastern shore of the sea, perhaps a little way to the north of 'Ayun Musa ("the springs of Moses"), there they encamped and rested probably for a day. Here Miriam and the other women sang the triumphal song recorded in Ex. 15:1-21.

From 'Ayun Musa they went on for three days through a part of the barren "wilderness of Shur" (22), called also the "wilderness of Etham" (Num. 33:8; comp. Ex. 13:20), without finding water. On the last of these days they came to Marah (q.v.), where the "bitter" water was by a miracle made drinkable.

Their next camping-place was Elim (q.v.), where were twelve springs of water and a grove of "threescore and ten" palm trees (Ex. 15:27).

After a time the children of Israel "took their journey from Elim," and encamped by the Red Sea (Num. 33:10), and thence removed to the "wilderness of Sin" (to be distinguished from the wilderness of Zin, 20:1), where they again encamped. Here, probably the modern el-Markha, the supply of bread they had brought with them out of Egypt failed. They began to "murmur" for want of bread. God "heard their murmurings" and gave them quails and manna, "bread from heaven" (Ex. 16:4-36). Moses directed that an omer of manna should be put aside and preserved as a perpetual memorial of God's goodness. They now turned inland, and after three encampments came to the rich and fertile valley of Rephidim, in the Wady Feiran. Here they found no water, and again murmured against Moses. Directed by God, Moses procured a miraculous supply of water from the "rock in Horeb," one of the hills of the Sinai group (17:1-7); and shortly afterwards the children of Israel here fought their first battle with the Amalekites, whom they smote with the edge of the sword.

From the eastern extremity of the Wady Feiran the line of march now probably led through the Wady esh-Sheikh and the Wady Solaf, meeting in the Wady er-Rahah, "the enclosed plain in front of the magnificient cliffs of Ras Sufsafeh." Here they encamped for more than a year (Num. 1:1; 10:11) before Sinai (q.v.).

The different encampments of the children of Israel, from the time of their leaving Egypt till they reached the Promised Land, are mentioned in Ex. 12:37-19; Num. 10-21; 33; Deut. 1, 2, 10.

It is worthy of notice that there are unmistakable evidences that the Egyptians had a tradition of a great exodus from their country, which could be none other than the exodus of the Hebrews.

Exodus, Book of - Exodus is the name given in the LXX. to the second book of the Pentateuch (q.v.). It means "departure" or "outgoing." This name was adopted in the Latin translation, and thence passed into other languages. The Hebrews called it by the first words, according to their custom, Ve-eleh shemoth (i.e., "and these are the names").

It contains, (1.) An account of the increase and growth of the Israelites in Egypt (ch. 1) (2.) Preparations for their departure out of Egypt (2-12:36). (3.) Their journeyings from Egypt to Sinai (12:37-19:2). (4.) The giving of the law and the establishment of the institutions by which the organization of the people was completed, the theocracy, "a kingdom of priest and an holy nation" (19:3-ch. 40).

The time comprised in this book, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the tabernacle in the wilderness, is about one hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition that the four hundred and thirty years (12:40) are to be computed from the time of the promises made to Abraham (Gal. 3:17).

The authorship of this book, as well as of that of the other books of the Pentateuch, is to be ascribed to Moses. The unanimous voice of tradition and all internal evidences abundantly support this opinion.

Exorcist - (Acts 19:13). "In that sceptical and therefore superstitious age professional exorcist abounded. Many of these professional exorcists were disreputable Jews, like Simon in Samaria and Elymas in Cyprus (8:9; 13:6)." Other references to exorcism as practised by the Jews are found in Matt. 12:27; Mark 9:38; Luke 9:49, 50. It would seem that it was an opinion among the Jews that miracles might be wrought by invoking the divine name. Thus also these "vagabond Jews" pretended that they could expel daemons.

The power of casting out devils was conferred by Christ on his apostles (Matt. 10:8), and on the seventy (Luke 10:17-19), and was exercised by believers after his ascension (Mark 16:17; Acts 16:18); but this power was never spoken of as exorcism.

Expiation - Guilt is said to be expiated when it is visited with punishment falling on a substitute. Expiation is made for our sins when they are punished not in ourselves but in another who consents to stand in our room. It is that by which reconciliation is effected. Sin is thus said to be "covered" by vicarious satisfaction.

The cover or lid of the ark is termed in the LXX. hilasterion, that which covered or shut out the claims and demands of the law against the sins of God's people, whereby he became "propitious" to them.

The idea of vicarious expiation runs through the whole Old Testament system of sacrifices. (See PROPITIATION.)

Eye - (Heb. 'ain, meaning "flowing"), applied (1) to a fountain, frequently; (2) to colour (Num. 11:7; R.V., "appearance," marg. "eye"); (3) the face (Ex. 10:5, 15; Num. 22:5, 11), in Num. 14:14, "face to face" (R.V. marg., "eye to eye"). "Between the eyes", i.e., the forehead (Ex. 13:9, 16).

The expression (Prov. 23:31), "when it giveth his colour in the cup," is literally, "when it giveth out [or showeth] its eye." The beads or bubbles of wine are thus spoken of. "To set the eyes" on any one is to view him with favour (Gen. 44:21; Job 24:23; Jer. 39:12). This word is used figuratively in the expressions an "evil eye" (Matt. 20:15), a "bountiful eye" (Prov. 22:9), "haughty eyes" (6:17 marg.), "wanton eyes" (Isa. 3:16), "eyes full of adultery" (2 Pet. 2:14), "the lust of the eyes" (1 John 2:16). Christians are warned against "eye-service" (Eph. 6:6; Col. 3:22). Men were sometimes punished by having their eyes put out (1 Sam. 11:2; Samson, Judg. 16:21; Zedekiah, 2 Kings 25:7).

The custom of painting the eyes is alluded to in 2 Kings 9:30, R.V.; Jer. 4:30; Ezek. 23:40, a custom which still prevails extensively among Eastern women.

Ezekias - Grecized form of Hezekiah (Matt. 1:9, 10).

Ezekiel - God will strengthen. (1.) 1 Chr. 24:16, "Jehezekel."

(2.) One of the great prophets, the son of Buzi the priest (Ezek. 1:3). He was one of the Jewish exiles who settled at Tel-Abib, on the banks of the Chebar, "in the land of the Chaldeans." He was probably carried away captive with Jehoiachin (1:2; 2 Kings 24:14-16) about B.C. 597. His prophetic call came to him "in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's captivity" (B.C. 594). He had a house in the place of his exile, where he lost his wife, in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezek. 8:1; 24:18). He held a prominent place among the exiles, and was frequently consulted by the elders (8:1; 11:25; 14:1; 20:1). His ministry extended over twenty-three years (29:17), B.C. 595-573, during part of which he was contemporary with Daniel (14:14; 28:3) and Jeremiah, and probably also with Obadiah. The time and manner of his death are unknown. His reputed tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood of Bagdad, at a place called Keffil.

Ezekiel, Book of - consists mainly of three groups of prophecies. After an account of his call to the prophetical office (1-3:21), Ezekiel (1) utters words of denunciation against the Jews (3:22-24), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (4:1-3). The symbolical acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in ch. 4,5, show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See Ex. 22:30; Deut. 14:21; Lev. 5:2; 7:18,24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8, etc.)

(2.) Prophecies against various surrounding nations: against the Ammonites (Ezek. 25:1-7), the Moabites (8-11), the Edomites (12-14), the Philistines (15-17), Tyre and Sidon (26-28), and against Egypt (29-32).

(3.) Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar: the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth (Ezek. 33-39); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God (40;48).

The closing visions of this book are referred to in the book of Revelation (Ezek. 38=Rev. 20:8; Ezek. 47:1-8=Rev. 22:1,2). Other references to this book are also found in the New Testament. (Comp. Rom. 2:24 with Ezek. 36:2; Rom. 10:5, Gal. 3:12 with Ezek. 20:11; 2 Pet. 3:4 with Ezek. 12:22.)

It may be noted that Daniel, fourteen years after his deportation from Jerusalem, is mentioned by Ezekiel (14:14) along with Noah and Job as distinguished for his righteousness, and some five years later he is spoken of as pre-eminent for his wisdom (28:3).

Ezekiel's prophecies are characterized by symbolical and allegorical representations, "unfolding a rich series of majestic visions and of colossal symbols." There are a great many also of "symbolcal actions embodying vivid conceptions on the part of the prophet" (4:1-4; 5:1-4; 12:3-6; 24:3-5; 37:16, etc.) "The mode of representation, in which symbols and allegories occupy a prominent place, gives a dark, mysterious character to the prophecies of Ezekiel. They are obscure and enigmatical. A cloudy mystery overhangs them which it is almost impossible to penetrate. Jerome calls the book 'a labyrith of the mysteries of God.' It was because of this obscurity that the Jews forbade any one to read it till he had attained the age of thirty."

Ezekiel is singular in the frequency with which he refers to the Pentateuch (e.g., Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11, 34; 47:13, etc.). He shows also an acquaintance with the writings of Hosea (Ezek. 37:22), Isaiah (Ezek. 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of Jeremiah, his older contemporary (Jer. 24:7, 9; 48:37).

Ezel - a separation, (1 Sam. 20:19), a stone, or heap of stones, in the neighbourhood of Saul's residence, the scene of the parting of David and Jonathan (42). The margin of the Authorized Version reads, "The stone that sheweth the way," in this rendering following the Targum.

Ezer - treasure. (1.) One of the sons of Seir, the native princes, "dukes," of Mount Hor (Gen. 36:21, 27). (2.) 1 Chr. 7:21; (3.) 4:4. (4.) One of the Gadite champions who repaired to David at Ziklag (12:9). (5.) A Levite (Neh. 3:19). (6.) A priest (12:42).

Ezion-geber - the giant's backbone (so called from the head of a mountain which runs out into the sea), an ancient city and harbour at the north-east end of the Elanitic branch of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Akabah, near Elath or Eloth (Num. 33:35; Deut. 2:8). Here Solomon built ships, "Tarshish ships," like those trading from Tyre to Tarshish and the west, which traded with Ophir (1 Kings 9:26; 2 Chr. 8:17); and here also Jehoshaphat's fleet was shipwrecked (1 Kings 22:48; 2 Chr. 20:36). It became a populous town, many of the Jews settling in it (2 Kings 16:6, "Elath"). It is supposed that anciently the north end of the gulf flowed further into the country than now, as far as 'Ain el-Ghudyan, which is 10 miles up the dry bed of the Arabah, and that Ezion-geber may have been there.

Ezra - help. (1.) A priest among those that returned to Jerusalem under Zerubabel (Neh. 12:1).

(2.) The "scribe" who led the second body of exiles that returned from Babylon to Jerusalem B.C. 459, and author of the book of Scripture which bears his name. He was the son, or perhaps grandson, of Seraiah (2 Kings 25:18-21), and a lineal descendant of Phinehas, the son of Aaron (Ezra 7:1-5). All we know of his personal history is contained in the last four chapters of his book, and in Neh. 8 and 12:26.

In the seventh year of the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus (see DARIUS ¯T0000975), he obtained leave to go up to Jerusalem and to take with him a company of Israelites (Ezra 8). Artaxerxes manifested great interest in Ezra's undertaking, granting him "all his request," and loading him with gifts for the house of God. Ezra assembled the band of exiles, probably about 5,000 in all, who were prepared to go up with him to Jerusalem, on the banks of the Ahava, where they rested for three days, and were put into order for their march across the desert, which was completed in four months. His proceedings at Jerusalem on his arrival there are recorded in his book.

He was "a ready scribe in the law of Moses," who "had prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and judgments." "He is," says Professor Binnie, "the first well-defined example of an order of men who have never since ceased in the church; men of sacred erudition, who devote their lives to the study of the Holy Scriptures, in order that they may be in a condition to interpret them for the instruction and edification of the church. It is significant that the earliest mention of the pulpit occurs in the history of Ezra's ministry (Neh. 8:4). He was much more of a teacher than a priest. We learn from the account of his labours in the book of Nehemiah that he was careful to have the whole people instructed in the law of Moses; and there is no reason to reject the constant tradition of the Jews which connects his name with the collecting and editing of the Old Testament canon. The final completion of the canon may have been, and probably was, the work of a later generation; but Ezra seems to have put it much into the shape in which it is still found in the Hebrew Bible. When it is added that the complete organization of the synagogue dates from this period, it will be seen that the age was emphatically one of Biblical study" (The Psalms: their History, etc.).

For about fourteen years, i.e., till B.C. 445, we have no record of what went on in Jerusalem after Ezra had set in order the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the nation. In that year another distinguished personage, Nehemiah, appears on the scene. After the ruined wall of the city had been built by Nehemiah, there was a great gathering of the people at Jerusalem preparatory to the dedication of the wall. On the appointed day the whole population assembled, and the law was read aloud to them by Ezra and his assistants (Neh. 8:3). The remarkable scene is described in detail. There was a great religious awakening. For successive days they held solemn assemblies, confessing their sins and offering up solemn sacrifices. They kept also the feast of Tabernacles with great solemnity and joyous enthusiasm, and then renewed their national covenant to be the Lord's. Abuses were rectified, and arrangements for the temple service completed, and now nothing remained but the dedication of the walls of the city (Neh. 12).

Ezra, Book of - This book is the record of events occurring at the close of the Babylonian exile. It was at one time included in Nehemiah, the Jews regarding them as one volume. The two are still distinguished in the Vulgate version as I. and II. Esdras. It consists of two principal divisions:

(1.) The history of the first return of exiles, in the first year of Cyrus (B.C. 536), till the completion and dedication of the new temple, in the sixth year of Darius Hystapes (B.C. 515), ch. 1-6. From the close of the sixth to the opening of the seventh chapter there is a blank in the history of about sixty years.

(2.) The history of the second return under Ezra, in the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, and of the events that took place at Jerusalem after Ezra's arrival there (7-10).

The book thus contains memorabilia connected with the Jews, from the decree of Cyrus (B.C. 536) to the reformation by Ezra (B.C. 456), extending over a period of about eighty years.

There is no quotation from this book in the New Testament, but there never has been any doubt about its being canonical. Ezra was probably the author of this book, at least of the greater part of it (comp. 7:27, 28; 8:1, etc.), as he was also of the Books of Chronicles, the close of which forms the opening passage of Ezra.

Ezrahite - a title given to Ethan (1 Kings 4:31; Ps. 89, title) and Heman (Ps. 88, title). They were both sons of Zerah (1 Chr. 2:6).

Ezri - help of Jehovah, the son of Chelub. He superintended, under David, those who "did the work of the field for tillage" (1 Chr. 27:26).

Fable - applied in the New Testament to the traditions and speculations, "cunningly devised fables", of the Jews on religious questions (1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Titus 1:14; 2 Pet. 1:16). In such passages the word means anything false and unreal. But the word is used as almost equivalent to parable. Thus we have (1) the fable of Jotham, in which the trees are spoken of as choosing a king (Judg. 9:8-15); and (2) that of the cedars of Lebanon and the thistle as Jehoash's answer to Amaziah (2 Kings 14:9).

Face - means simply presence, as when it is recorded that Adam and Eve hid themselves from the "face [R.V., 'presence'] of the Lord God" (Gen. 3:8; comp. Ex. 33:14, 15, where the same Hebrew word is rendered "presence"). The "light of God's countenance" is his favour (Ps. 44:3; Dan. 9:17). "Face" signifies also anger, justice, severity (Gen. 16:6, 8; Ex. 2:15; Ps. 68:1; Rev. 6:16). To "provoke God to his face" (Isa. 65:3) is to sin against him openly.

"F"

The Jews prayed with their faces toward the temple and Jerusalem (1 Kings 8:38, 44, 48; Dan. 6:10). To "see God's face" is to have access to him and to enjoy his favour (Ps. 17:15; 27:8). This is the privilege of holy angels (Matt. 18:10; Luke 1:19). The "face of Jesus Christ" (2 Cor. 4:6) is the office and person of Christ, the revealer of the glory of God (John 1:14, 18). Fair Havens - a harbour in the south of Crete, some 5 miles to the east of which was the town of Lasea (Acts 27:8). Here the ship of Alexandria in which Paul and his companions sailed was detained a considerable time waiting for a favourable wind. Contrary to Paul's advice, the master of the ship determined to prosecute the voyage, as the harbour was deemed incommodious for wintering in (9-12). The result was that, after a stormy voyage, the vessel was finally wrecked on the coast of Malta (27:40-44).

Fairs - (Heb. 'izabhonim), found seven times in Ezek. 27, and nowhere else. The Authorized Version renders the word thus in all these instances, except in verse 33, where "wares" is used. The Revised Version uniformly renders by "wares," which is the correct rendering of the Hebrew word. It never means "fairs" in the modern sense of the word.

Faith - Faith is in general the persuasion of the mind that a certain statement is true (Phil. 1:27; 2 Thess. 2:13). Its primary idea is trust. A thing is true, and therefore worthy of trust. It admits of many degrees up to full assurance of faith, in accordance with the evidence on which it rests.

Faith is the result of teaching (Rom. 10:14-17). Knowledge is an essential element in all faith, and is sometimes spoken of as an equivalent to faith (John 10:38; 1 John 2:3). Yet the two are distinguished in this respect, that faith includes in it assent, which is an act of the will in addition to the act of the understanding. Assent to the truth is of the essence of faith, and the ultimate ground on which our assent to any revealed truth rests is the veracity of God.

Historical faith is the apprehension of and assent to certain statements which are regarded as mere facts of history.

Temporary faith is that state of mind which is awakened in men (e.g., Felix) by the exhibition of the truth and by the influence of religious sympathy, or by what is sometimes styled the common operation of the Holy Spirit.

Saving faith is so called because it has eternal life inseparably connected with it. It cannot be better defined than in the words of the Assembly's Shorter Catechism: "Faith in Jesus Christ is a saving grace, whereby we receive and rest upon him alone for salvation, as he is offered to us in the gospel."

The object of saving faith is the whole revealed Word of God. Faith accepts and believes it as the very truth most sure. But the special act of faith which unites to Christ has as its object the person and the work of the Lord Jesus Christ (John 7:38; Acts 16:31). This is the specific act of faith by which a sinner is justified before God (Rom. 3:22, 25; Gal. 2:16; Phil. 3:9; John 3:16-36; Acts 10:43; 16:31). In this act of faith the believer appropriates and rests on Christ alone as Mediator in all his offices.

This assent to or belief in the truth received upon the divine testimony has always associated with it a deep sense of sin, a distinct view of Christ, a consenting will, and a loving heart, together with a reliance on, a trusting in, or resting in Christ. It is that state of mind in which a poor sinner, conscious of his sin, flees from his guilty self to Christ his Saviour, and rolls over the burden of all his sins on him. It consists chiefly, not in the assent given to the testimony of God in his Word, but in embracing with fiducial reliance and trust the one and only Saviour whom God reveals. This trust and reliance is of the essence of faith. By faith the believer directly and immediately appropriates Christ as his own. Faith in its direct act makes Christ ours. It is not a work which God graciously accepts instead of perfect obedience, but is only the hand by which we take hold of the person and work of our Redeemer as the only ground of our salvation.

Saving faith is a moral act, as it proceeds from a renewed will, and a renewed will is necessary to believing assent to the truth of God (1 Cor. 2:14; 2 Cor. 4:4). Faith, therefore, has its seat in the moral part of our nature fully as much as in the intellectual. The mind must first be enlightened by divine teaching (John 6:44; Acts 13:48; 2 Cor. 4:6; Eph. 1:17, 18) before it can discern the things of the Spirit.

Faith is necessary to our salvation (Mark 16:16), not because there is any merit in it, but simply because it is the sinner's taking the place assigned him by God, his falling in with what God is doing.

The warrant or ground of faith is the divine testimony, not the reasonableness of what God says, but the simple fact that he says it. Faith rests immediately on, "Thus saith the Lord." But in order to this faith the veracity, sincerity, and truth of God must be owned and appreciated, together with his unchangeableness. God's word encourages and emboldens the sinner personally to transact with Christ as God's gift, to close with him, embrace him, give himself to Christ, and take Christ as his. That word comes with power, for it is the word of God who has revealed himself in his works, and especially in the cross. God is to be believed for his word's sake, but also for his name's sake.

Faith in Christ secures for the believer freedom from condemnation, or justification before God; a participation in the life that is in Christ, the divine life (John 14:19; Rom. 6:4-10; Eph. 4:15,16, etc.); "peace with God" (Rom. 5:1); and sanctification (Acts 26:18; Gal. 5:6; Acts 15:9).

All who thus believe in Christ will certainly be saved (John 6:37, 40; 10:27, 28; Rom. 8:1).

The faith=the gospel (Acts 6:7; Rom. 1:5; Gal. 1:23; 1 Tim. 3:9; Jude 1:3).

Faithful - as a designation of Christians, means full of faith, trustful, and not simply trustworthy (Acts 10:45; 16:1; 2 Cor. 6:15; Col. 1:2; 1 Tim. 4:3, 12; 5:16; 6:2; Titus 1:6; Eph. 1:1; 1 Cor. 4:17, etc.).

It is used also of God's word or covenant as true and to be trusted (Ps. 119:86, 138; Isa. 25:1; 1 Tim. 1:15; Rev. 21:5; 22:6, etc.).

Fall of man - an expression probably borrowed from the Apocryphal Book of Wisdom, to express the fact of the revolt of our first parents from God, and the consequent sin and misery in which they and all their posterity were involved.

The history of the Fall is recorded in Gen. 2 and 3. That history is to be literally interpreted. It records facts which underlie the whole system of revealed truth. It is referred to by our Lord and his apostles not only as being true, but as furnishing the ground of all God's subsequent dispensations and dealings with the children of men. The record of Adam's temptation and fall must be taken as a true historical account, if we are to understand the Bible at all as a revelation of God's purpose of mercy.

The effects of this first sin upon our first parents themselves were (1) "shame, a sense of degradation and pollution; (2) dread of the displeasure of God, or a sense of guilt, and the consequent desire to hide from his presence. These effects were unavoidable. They prove the loss not only of innocence but of original righteousness, and, with it, of the favour and fellowship of God. The state therefore to which Adam was reduced by his disobedience, so far as his subjective condition is concerned, was analogous to that of the fallen angels. He was entirely and absolutely ruined" (Hodge's Theology).

But the unbelief and disobedience of our first parents brought not only on themselves this misery and ruin, it entailed also the same sad consequences on all their descendants. (1.) The guilt, i.e., liability to punishment, of that sin comes by imputation upon all men, because all were represented by Adam in the covenant of works (q.v.). (See IMPUTATION.)

(2.) Hence, also, all his descendants inherit a corrupt nature. In all by nature there is an inherent and prevailing tendency to sin. This universal depravity is taught by universal experience. All men sin as soon as they are capable of moral actions. The testimony of the Scriptures to the same effect is most abundant (Rom. 1; 2; 3:1-19, etc.).

(3.) This innate depravity is total: we are by nature "dead in trespasses and sins," and must be "born again" before we can enter into the kingdom (John 3:7, etc.).

(4.) Resulting from this "corruption of our whole nature" is our absolute moral inability to change our nature or to obey the law of God.

Commenting on John 9:3, Ryle well remarks: "A deep and instructive principle lies in these words. They surely throw some light on that great question, the origin of evil. God has thought fit to allow evil to exist in order that he may have a platform for showing his mercy, grace, and compassion. If man had never fallen there would have been no opportunity of showing divine mercy. But by permitting evil, mysterious as it seems, God's works of grace, mercy, and wisdom in saving sinners have been wonderfully manifested to all his creatures. The redeeming of the church of elect sinners is the means of 'showing to principalities and powers the manifold wisdom of God' (Eph. 3:10). Without the Fall we should have known nothing of the Cross and the Gospel."

On the monuments of Egypt are found representations of a deity in human form, piercing with a spear the head of a serpent. This is regarded as an illustration of the wide dissemination of the tradition of the Fall. The story of the "golden age," which gives place to the "iron age", the age of purity and innocence, which is followed by a time when man becomes a prey to sin and misery, as represented in the mythology of Greece and Rome, has also been regarded as a tradition of the Fall.

Fallow-deer - Deut. 14:5 (R.V., "Wild goat"); 1 Kings 4:23 (R.V., "roebucks"). This animal, called in Hebrew yahmur, from a word meaning "to be red," is regarded by some as the common fallow-deer, the Cervus dama, which is said to be found very generally over Western and Southern Asia. It is called "fallow" from its pale-red or yellow colour. Some interpreters, however, regard the name as designating the bubale, Antelope bubale, the "wild cow" of North Africa, which is about the size of a stag, like the hartebeest of South Africa. A species of deer has been found at Mount Carmel which is called yahmur by the Arabs. It is said to be similar to the European roebuck.

Fallow-ground - The expression, "Break up your fallow ground" (Hos. 10:12; Jer. 4:3) means, "Do not sow your seed among thorns", i.e., break off all your evil habits; clear your hearts of weeds, in order that they may be prepared for the seed of righteousness. Land was allowed to lie fallow that it might become more fruitful; but when in this condition, it soon became overgrown with thorns and weeds. The cultivator of the soil was careful to "break up" his fallow ground, i.e., to clear the field of weeds, before sowing seed in it. So says the prophet, "Break off your evil ways, repent of your sins, cease to do evil, and then the good seed of the word will have room to grow and bear fruit."

Familiar spirit - Sorcerers or necormancers, who professed to call up the dead to answer questions, were said to have a "familiar spirit" (Deut. 18:11; 2 Kings 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6; Lev. 19:31; 20:6; Isa. 8:19; 29:4). Such a person was called by the Hebrews an 'ob, which properly means a leathern bottle; for sorcerers were regarded as vessels containing the inspiring demon. This Hebrew word was equivalent to the pytho of the Greeks, and was used to denote both the person and the spirit which possessed him (Lev. 20:27; 1 Sam. 28:8; comp. Acts 16:16). The word "familiar" is from the Latin familiaris, meaning a "household servant," and was intended to express the idea that sorcerers had spirits as their servants ready to obey their commands.

Famine - The first mentioned in Scripture was so grievous as to compel Abraham to go down to the land of Egypt (Gen. 26:1). Another is mentioned as having occurred in the days of Isaac, causing him to go to Gerar (Gen. 26:1, 17). But the most remarkable of all was that which arose in Egypt in the days of Joseph, which lasted for seven years (Gen. 41-45).

Famines were sent as an effect of God's anger against a guilty people (2 Kings 8:1, 2; Amos 8:11; Deut. 28:22-42; 2 Sam. 21:1; 2 Kings 6:25-28; 25:3; Jer. 14:15; 19:9; 42:17, etc.). A famine was predicted by Agabus (Acts 11:28). Josephus makes mention of the famine which occurred A.D. 45. Helena, queen of Adiabene, being at Jerusalem at that time, procured corn from Alexandria and figs from Cyprus for its poor inhabitants.

Fan - a winnowing shovel by which grain was thrown up against the wind that it might be cleansed from broken straw and chaff (Isa. 30:24; Jer. 15:7; Matt. 3:12). (See AGRICULTURE.)

Farm - (Matt. 22:5). Every Hebrew had a certain portion of land assigned to him as a possession (Num. 26:33-56). In Egypt the lands all belonged to the king, and the husbandmen were obliged to give him a fifth part of the produce; so in Palestine Jehovah was the sole possessor of the soil, and the people held it by direct tenure from him. By the enactment of Moses, the Hebrews paid a tithe of the produce to Jehovah, which was assigned to the priesthood. Military service when required was also to be rendered by every Hebrew at his own expense. The occuptaion of a husbandman was held in high honour (1 Sam. 11:5-7; 1 Kings 19:19; 2 Chr. 26:10). (See LAND LAWS ¯(n/a); TITHE.)

Farthing - (1.) Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6. Greek assarion, i.e., a small as, which was a Roman coin equal to a tenth of a denarius or drachma, nearly equal to a halfpenny of our money.

(2.) Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42 (Gr. kodrantes), the quadrant, the fourth of an as, equal to two lepta, mites. The lepton (mite) was the very smallest copper coin.

Fast - The sole fast required by the law of Moses was that of the great Day of Atonement (q.v.), Lev. 23:26-32. It is called "the fast" (Acts 27:9).

The only other mention of a periodical fast in the Old Testament is in Zech. 7:1-7; 8:19, from which it appears that during their captivity the Jews observed four annual fasts.

(1.) The fast of the fourth month, kept on the seventeenth day of Tammuz, the anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans; to commemorate also the incident recorded Ex. 32:19. (Comp. Jer. 52:6, 7.)

(2.) The fast of the fifth month, kept on the ninth of Ab (comp. Num. 14:27), to commemorate the burning of the city and temple (Jer. 52:12, 13).

(3.) The fast of the seventh month, kept on the third of Tisri (comp. 2 Kings 25), the anniversary of the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1, 2).

(4.) The fast of the tenth month (comp. Jer. 52:4; Ezek. 33:21; 2 Kings 25:1), to commemorate the beginning of the siege of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar.

There was in addition to these the fast appointed by Esther (4:16).

Public national fasts on account of sin or to supplicate divine favour were sometimes held. (1.) 1 Sam. 7:6; (2.) 2 Chr. 20:3; (3.) Jer. 36:6-10; (4.) Neh. 9:1.

There were also local fasts. (1.) Judg. 20:26; (2.) 2 Sam. 1:12; (3.) 1 Sam. 31:13; (4.) 1 Kings 21:9-12; (5.) Ezra 8:21-23: (6.) Jonah 3:5-9.

There are many instances of private occasional fasting (1 Sam. 1:7: 20:34; 2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; Ezra 10:6; Neh. 1:4; Dan. 10:2,3). Moses fasted forty days (Ex. 24:18; 34:28), and so also did Elijah (1 Kings 19:8). Our Lord fasted forty days in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2).

In the lapse of time the practice of fasting was lamentably abused (Isa. 58:4; Jer. 14:12; Zech. 7:5). Our Lord rebuked the Pharisees for their hypocritical pretences in fasting (Matt. 6:16). He himself appointed no fast. The early Christians, however, observed the ordinary fasts according to the law of their fathers (Acts 13:3; 14:23; 2 Cor. 6:5).

Fat - (Heb. heleb) denotes the richest part of the animal, or the fattest of the flock, in the account of Abel's sacrifice (Gen. 4:4). It sometimes denotes the best of any production (Gen. 45:18; Num. 18:12; Ps. 81:16; 147:47). The fat of sacrifices was to be burned (Lev. 3:9-11; 4:8; 7:3; 8:25; Num. 18:17. Comp. Ex. 29:13-22; Lev. 3:3-5).

It is used figuratively for a dull, stupid state of mind (Ps 17:10).

In Joel 2:24 the word is equivalent to "vat," a vessel. The hebrew word here thus rendered is elsewhere rendered "wine-fat" and "press-fat" (Hag. 2:16; Isa. 63:2).

Father - a name applied (1) to any ancestor (Deut. 1:11; 1 Kings 15:11; Matt. 3:9; 23:30, etc.); and (2) as a title of respect to a chief, ruler, or elder, etc. (Judg. 17:10; 18:19; 1 Sam. 10:12; 2 Kings 2:12; Matt. 23:9, etc.). (3) The author or beginner of anything is also so called; e.g., Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 4:20, 21; comp. Job 38:28).

Applied to God (Ex. 4:22; Deut. 32:6; 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 89:27, 28, etc.). (1.) As denoting his covenant relation to the Jews (Jer. 31:9; Isa. 63:16; 64:8; John 8:41, etc.).

(2.) Believers are called God's "sons" (John 1:12; Rom. 8:16; Matt. 6:4, 8, 15, 18; 10:20, 29). They also call him "Father" (Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:4)

Fathom - (Old A.S. faethm, "bosom," or the outstretched arms), a span of six feet (Acts 27:28). Gr. orguia (from orego, "I stretch"), the distance between the extremities of both arms fully stretched out.

Fatling - (1.) A fatted animal for slaughter (2 Sam. 6:13; Isa. 11:6; Ezek. 39:18. Comp. Matt. 22:4, where the word used in the original, sitistos, means literally "corn-fed;" i.e., installed, fat). (2.) Ps. 66:15 (Heb. meah, meaning "marrowy," "fat," a species of sheep). (3.) 1 Sam. 15:9 (Heb. mishneh, meaning "the second," and hence probably "cattle of a second quality," or lambs of the second birth, i.e., autmnal lambs, and therfore of less value).

Fear of the Lord the - is in the Old Testament used as a designation of true piety (Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Ps. 19:9). It is a fear conjoined with love and hope, and is therefore not a slavish dread, but rather filial reverence. (Comp. Deut. 32:6; Hos. 11:1; Isa. 1:2; 63:16; 64:8.) God is called "the Fear of Isaac" (Gen. 31:42, 53), i.e., the God whom Isaac feared.

A holy fear is enjoined also in the New Testament as a preventive of carelessness in religion, and as an incentive to penitence (Matt. 10:28; 2 Cor. 5:11; 7:1; Phil. 2:12; Eph. 5:21; Heb. 12:28, 29).

Feast - as a mark of hospitality (Gen. 19:3; 2 Sam. 3:20; 2 Kings 6:23); on occasions of domestic joy (Luke 15:23; Gen. 21:8); on birthdays (Gen. 40:20; Job 1:4; Matt. 14:6); and on the occasion of a marriage (Judg. 14:10; Gen. 29:22).

Feasting was a part of the observances connected with the offering up of sacrifices (Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 9:19; 16:3, 5), and with the annual festivals (Deut. 16:11). "It was one of the designs of the greater solemnities, which required the attendance of the people at the sacred tent, that the oneness of the nation might be maintained and cemented together, by statedly congregating in one place, and with one soul taking part in the same religious services. But that oneness was primarily and chiefly a religious and not merely a political one; the people were not merely to meet as among themselves, but with Jehovah, and to present themselves before him as one body; the meeting was in its own nature a binding of themselves in fellowship with Jehovah; so that it was not politics and commerce that had here to do, but the soul of the Mosaic dispensation, the foundation of the religious and political existence of Israel, the covenant with Jehovah. To keep the people's consciousness alive to this, to revive, strengthen, and perpetuate it, nothing could be so well adapated as these annual feasts." (See FESTIVALS.)

Felix - happy, the Roman procurator of Judea before whom Paul "reasoned" (Acts 24:25). He appears to have expected a bribe from Paul, and therefore had several interviews with him. The "worthy deeds" referred to in 24:2 was his clearing the country of banditti and impostors.

At the end of a two years' term, Porcius Festus was appointed in the room of Felix (A.D. 60), who proceeded to Rome, and was there accused of cruelty and malversation of office by the Jews of Caesarea. The accusation was rendered nugatory by the influence of his brother Pallas with Nero. (See Josephus, Ant. xx. 8, 9.)

Drusilla, the daughter of Herod Agrippa, having been induced by Felix to desert her husband, the king of Emesa, became his adulterous companion. She was seated beside him when Paul "reasoned" before the judge. When Felix gave place to Festus, being "willing to do the Jews a pleasure," he left Paul bound.

Fellowship - (1.) With God, consisting in the knowledge of his will (Job 22:21; John 17:3); agreement with his designs (Amos 3:2); mutual affection (Rom. 8: 38, 39); enjoyment of his presence (Ps. 4:6); conformity to his image (1 John 2:6; 1:6); and participation of his felicity (1 John 1:3, 4; Eph. 3:14-21).

(2.) Of saints with one another, in duties (Rom. 12:5; 1 Cor. 12:1; 1 Thess. 5:17, 18); in ordinances (Heb. 10:25; Acts 2:46); in grace, love, joy, etc. (Mal. 3:16; 2 Cor. 8:4); mutual interest, spiritual and temporal (Rom. 12:4, 13; Heb. 13:16); in sufferings (Rom. 15:1, 2; Gal. 6:1, 2; Rom. 12:15; and in glory (Rev. 7:9).

Fence - (Heb. gader), Num. 22:24 (R.V.). Fences were constructions of unmortared stones, to protect gardens, vineyards, sheepfolds, etc. From various causes they were apt to bulge out and fall (Ps. 62:3). In Ps. 80:12, R.V. (see Isa. 5:5), the psalmist says, "Why hast thou broken down her fences?" Serpents delight to lurk in the crevices of such fences (Eccl. 10:8; comp. Amos 5:19).

Fenced cities - There were in Palestine (1) cities, (2) unwalled villages, and (3) villages with castles or towers (1 Chr. 27:25). Cities, so called, had walls, and were thus fenced. The fortifications consisted of one or two walls, on which were towers or parapets at regular intervals (2 Chr. 32:5; Jer. 31:38). Around ancient Jerusalem were three walls, on one of which were ninety towers, on the second fourteen, and on the third sixty. The tower of Hananeel, near the north-east corner of the city wall, is frequently referred to (Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Zech. 14:10). The gateways of such cities were also fortified (Neh. 2:8; 3:3, 6; Judg. 16:2, 3; 1 Sam. 23:7).

The Hebrews found many fenced cities when they entered the Promised Land (Num. 13:28; 32:17, 34-42; Josh. 11:12, 13; Judg. 1:27-33), and we may estimate the strength of some of these cities from the fact that they were long held in possession by the Canaanites. The Jebusites, e.g., were enabled to hold possession of Jerusalem till the time of David (2 Sam. 5:6, 7; 1 Chr. 11:5).

Several of the kings of Israel and Judah distinguished themselves as fortifiers or "builders" of cities.

Ferret - Lev. 11:30 (R.V., "gecko"), one of the unclean creeping things. It was perhaps the Lacerta gecko which was intended by the Hebrew word (anakah, a cry, "mourning," the creature which groans) here used, i.e., the "fan-footed" lizard, the gecko which makes a mournful wail. The LXX. translate it by a word meaning "shrew-mouse," of which there are three species in Palestine. The Rabbinical writers regard it as the hedgehog. The translation of the Revised Version is to be preferred.

Ferry boat - (2 Sam. 19:18), some kind of boat for crossing the river which the men of Judah placed at the service of the king. Floats or rafts for this purpose were in use from remote times (Isa. 18:2).

Festivals, Religious - There were daily (Lev. 23), weekly, monthly, and yearly festivals, and great stress was laid on the regular observance of them in every particular (Num. 28:1-8; Ex. 29:38-42; Lev. 6:8-23; Ex. 30:7-9; 27:20).

(1.) The septenary festivals were,

(a) The weekly Sabbath (Lev. 23:1-3; Ex. 19:3-30; 20:8-11; 31:12, etc.).

(b) The seventh new moon, or the feast of Trumpets (Num. 28:11-15; 29:1-6).

(d) The year of jubilee (Lev. 23-35; 25: 8-16; 27:16-25).

(2.) The great feasts were,

(a) The Passover. (b) The feast of Pentecost, or of weeks. (c) The feast of Tabernacles, or of ingathering.

On each of these occasions every male Israelite was commanded "to appear before the Lord" (Deut. 27:7; Neh. 8:9-12). The attendance of women was voluntary. (Comp. Luke 2:41; 1 Sam. 1:7; 2:19.) The promise that God would protect their homes (Ex. 34:23, 24) while all the males were absent in Jerusalem at these feasts was always fulfilled. "During the whole period between Moses and Christ we never read of an enemy invading the land at the time of the three festivals. The first instance on record is thirty-three years after they had withdrawn from themselves the divine protection by imbruing their hands in the Saviour's blood, when Cestius, the Roman general, slew fifty of the people of Lydda while all the rest had gone up to the feast of Tabernacles, A.D. 66."

These festivals, besides their religious purpose, had an important bearing on the maintenance among the people of the feeling of a national unity. The times fixed for their observance were arranged so as to interfere as little as possible with the industry of the people. The Passover was kept just before the harvest commenced, Pentecost at the conclusion of the corn harvest and before the vintage, the feast of Tabernacles after all the fruits of the ground had been gathered in.

(3.) The Day of Atonement, the tenth day of the seventh month (Lev. 16:1, 34; 23:26-32; Num. 29:7-11). (See ATONEMENT, DAY OF.)

Of the post-Exilian festivals reference is made to the feast of Dedication (John 10:22). This feast was appointed by Judas Maccabaeus in commemoration of the purification of the temple after it had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes. The "feast of Purim" (q.v.), Esther 9:24-32, was also instituted after the Exile. (Cf. John 5:1.)

Festus, Porcius - the successor of Felix (A.D. 60) as procurator of Judea (Acts 24:27). A few weeks after he had entered on his office the case of Paul, then a prisoner at Caesarea, was reported to him. The "next day," after he had gone down to Caesarea, he heard Paul defend himself in the presence of Herod Agrippa II. and his sister Bernice, and not finding in him anything worthy of death or of bonds, would have set him free had he not appealed unto Caesar (Acts 25:11, 12). In consequence of this appeal Paul was sent to Rome. Festus, after being in office less than two years, died in Judea. (See AGRIPPA.)

Fever - (Deut. 28:22; Matt. 8:14; Mark 1:30; John 4:52; Acts 28:8), a burning heat, as the word so rendered denotes, which attends all febrile attacks. In all Eastern countries such diseases are very common. Peter's wife's mother is said to have suffered from a "great fever" (Luke 4:38), an instance of Luke's professional exactitude in describing disease. He adopts here the technical medical distinction, as in those times fevers were divided into the "great" and the "less."

Field - (Heb. sadeh), a cultivated field, but unenclosed. It is applied to any cultivated ground or pasture (Gen. 29:2; 31:4; 34:7), or tillage (Gen. 37:7; 47:24). It is also applied to woodland (Ps. 132:6) or mountain top (Judg. 9:32, 36; 2 Sam. 1:21). It denotes sometimes a cultivated region as opposed to the wilderness (Gen. 33:19; 36:35). Unwalled villages or scattered houses are spoken of as "in the fields" (Deut. 28:3, 16; Lev. 25:31; Mark 6:36, 56). The "open field" is a place remote from a house (Gen. 4:8; Lev. 14:7, 53; 17:5). Cultivated land of any extent was called a field (Gen. 23:13, 17; 41:8; Lev. 27:16; Ruth 4:5; Neh. 12:29).

Fig - First mentioned in Gen. 3:7. The fig-tree is mentioned (Deut. 8:8) as one of the valuable products of Palestine. It was a sign of peace and prosperity (1 Kings 4:25; Micah 4:4; Zech. 3:10). Figs were used medicinally (2 Kings 20:7), and pressed together and formed into "cakes" as articles of diet (1 Sam. 30:12; Jer. 24:2).

Our Lord's cursing the fig-tree near Bethany (Mark 11:13) has occasioned much perplexity from the circumstance, as mentioned by the evangelist, that "the time of figs was not yet." The explanation of the words, however, lies in the simple fact that the fruit of the fig-tree appears before the leaves, and hence that if the tree produced leaves it ought also to have had fruit. It ought to have had fruit if it had been true to its "pretensions," in showing its leaves at this particular season. "This tree, so to speak, vaunted itself to be in advance of all the other trees, challenged the passer-by that he should come and refresh himself with its fruit. Yet when the Lord accepted its challenge and drew near, it proved to be but as the others, without fruit as they; for indeed, as the evangelist observes, the time of figs had not yet arrived. Its fault, if one may use the word, lay in its pretensions, in its making a show to run before the rest when it did not so indeed" (Trench, Miracles).

The fig-tree of Palestine (Ficus carica) produces two and sometimes three crops of figs in a year, (1) the bikkurah, or "early-ripe fig" (Micah 7:1; Isa. 28:4; Hos. 9:10, R.V.), which is ripe about the end of June, dropping off as soon as it is ripe (Nah. 3:12); (2) the kermus, or "summer fig," then begins to be formed, and is ripe about August; and (3) the pag (plural "green figs," Cant. 2:13; Gr. olynthos, Rev. 6:13, "the untimely fig"), or "winter fig," which ripens in sheltered spots in spring.

Fillets - Heb. hashukum, plur., joinings (Ex. 27:17; 38:17, 28), the rods by which the tops of the columns around the tabernacle court were joined together, and from which the curtains were suspended (Ex. 27:10, 11; 36:38).

In Jer. 52:21 the rendering of a different word, hut, meaning a "thread," and designating a measuring-line of 12 cubits in length for the circumference of the copper pillars of Solomon's temple.

Finer - a worker in silver and gold (Prov. 25:4). In Judg. 17:4 the word (tsoreph) is rendered "founder," and in Isa. 41:7 "goldsmith."

Fining pot - a crucible, melting-pot (Prov. 17:3; 27:21).

Fir - the uniform rendering in the Authorized Version (marg. R.V., "cypress") of berosh (2 Sam. 6:5; 1 Kings 5:8, 10; 6:15, 34; 9:11, etc.), a lofty tree (Isa. 55:13) growing on Lebanon (37:24). Its wood was used in making musical instruments and doors of houses, and for ceilings (2 Chr. 3:5), the decks of ships (Ezek. 27:5), floorings and spear-shafts (Nah. 2:3, R.V.). The true fir (abies) is not found in Palestine, but the pine tree, of which there are four species, is common.

The precise kind of tree meant by the "green fir tree" (Hos. 14:8) is uncertain. Some regard it as the sherbin tree, a cypress resembling the cedar; others, the Aleppo or maritime pine (Pinus halepensis), which resembles the Scotch fir; while others think that the "stone-pine" (Pinus pinea) is probably meant. (See PINE.)

Fire - (1.) For sacred purposes. The sacrifices were consumed by fire (Gen. 8:20). The ever-burning fire on the altar was first kindled from heaven (Lev. 6:9, 13; 9:24), and afterwards rekindled at the dedication of Solomon's temple (2 Chr. 7:1, 3). The expressions "fire from heaven" and "fire of the Lord" generally denote lightning, but sometimes also the fire of the altar was so called (Ex. 29:18; Lev. 1:9; 2:3; 3:5, 9).

Fire for a sacred purpose obtained otherwise than from the altar was called "strange fire" (Lev. 10:1, 2; Num. 3:4).

The victims slain for sin offerings were afterwards consumed by fire outside the camp (Lev. 4:12, 21; 6:30; 16:27; Heb. 13:11).

(2.) For domestic purposes, such as baking, cooking, warmth, etc. (Jer. 36:22; Mark 14:54; John 18:18). But on Sabbath no fire for any domestic purpose was to be kindled (Ex. 35:3; Num. 15:32-36).

(3.) Punishment of death by fire was inflicted on such as were guilty of certain forms of unchastity and incest (Lev. 20:14; 21:9). The burning of captives in war was not unknown among the Jews (2 Sam. 12:31; Jer. 29:22). The bodies of infamous persons who were executed were also sometimes burned (Josh. 7:25; 2 Kings 23:16).

(4.) In war, fire was used in the destruction of cities, as Jericho (Josh. 6:24), Ai (8:19), Hazor (11:11), Laish (Judg. 18:27), etc. The war-chariots of the Canaanites were burnt (Josh. 11:6, 9, 13). The Israelites burned the images (2 Kings 10:26; R.V., "pillars") of the house of Baal. These objects of worship seem to have been of the nature of obelisks, and were sometimes evidently made of wood.

Torches were sometimes carried by the soldiers in battle (Judg. 7:16).

(5.) Figuratively, fire is a symbol of Jehovah's presence and the instrument of his power (Ex. 14:19; Num. 11:1, 3; Judg. 13:20; 1 Kings 18:38; 2 Kings 1:10, 12; 2:11; Isa. 6:4; Ezek. 1:4; Rev. 1:14, etc.).

God's word is also likened unto fire (Jer. 23:29). It is referred to as an emblem of severe trials or misfortunes (Zech. 12:6; Luke 12:49; 1 Cor. 3:13, 15; 1 Pet. 1:7), and of eternal punishment (Matt. 5:22; Mark 9:44; Rev. 14:10; 21:8).

The influence of the Holy Ghost is likened unto fire (Matt. 3:11). His descent was denoted by the appearance of tongues as of fire (Acts 2:3).

Firebrand - Isa. 7:4, Amos 4:11, Zech. 3:2, denotes the burnt end of a stick (Heb. 'ud); in Judg. 15:4, a lamp or torch, a flambeau (Heb. lappid); in Prov. 26:18 (comp. Eph. 6:16), burning darts or arrows (Heb. zikkim).

Firepan - (Ex. 27:3; 38:3), one of the vessels of the temple service (rendered "snuff-dish" Ex. 25:38; 37:23; and "censer" Lev. 10:1; 16:12). It was probably a metallic cinder-basin used for the purpose of carrying live coal for burning incense, and of carrying away the snuff in trimming the lamps.

Firkin - Used only in John 2:6; the Attic amphora, equivalent to the Hebrew bath (q.v.), a measure for liquids containing about 8 7/8 gallons.

Firmament - from the Vulgate firmamentum, which is used as the translation of the Hebrew raki'a. This word means simply "expansion." It denotes the space or expanse like an arch appearing immediately above us. They who rendered raki'a by firmamentum regarded it as a solid body. The language of Scripture is not scientific but popular, and hence we read of the sun rising and setting, and also here the use of this particular word. It is plain that it was used to denote solidity as well as expansion. It formed a division between the waters above and the waters below (Gen. 1:7). The raki'a supported the upper reservoir (Ps. 148:4). It was the support also of the heavenly bodies (Gen. 1:14), and is spoken of as having "windows" and "doors" (Gen. 7:11; Isa. 24:18; Mal. 3:10) through which the rain and snow might descend.

First-born - sons enjoyed certain special privileges (Deut. 21:17; Gen. 25:23, 31, 34; 49:3; 1 Chr. 5:1; Heb. 12:16; Ps. 89:27). (See BIRTHRIGHT.)

The "first-born of the poor" signifies the most miserable of the poor (Isa. 14:30). The "church of the first-born" signifies the church of the redeemed.

The destruction of the first-born was the last of the ten plagues inflicted on the Egyptians (Ex. 11:1-8; 12:29, 30).

Menephtah is probably the Pharaoh whose first-born was slain. His son did not succeed or survive his father, but died early. The son's tomb has been found at Thebes unfinished, showing it was needed earlier than was expected. Some of the records on the tomb are as follows: "The son whom Menephtah loves; who draws towards him his father's heart, the singer, the prince of archers, who governed Egypt on behalf of his father. Dead."

First-born, Redemption of - From the beginning the office of the priesthood in each family belonged to the eldest son. But when the extensive plan of sacrificial worship was introduced, requiring a company of men to be exclusively devoted to this ministry, the primitive office of the first-born was superseded by that of the Levites (Num. 3:11-13), and it was ordained that the first-born of man and of unclean animals should henceforth be redeemed (18:15).

The laws concerning this redemption of the first-born of man are recorded in Ex. 13:12-15; 22:29; 34:20; Num. 3:45; 8:17; 18:16; Lev. 12:2, 4.

The first-born male of every clean animal was to be given up to the priest for sacrifice (Deut. 12:6; Ex. 13:12; 34:20; Num. 18:15-17).

But the first-born of unclean animals was either to be redeemed or sold and the price given to the priest (Lev. 27:11-13, 27). The first-born of an ass, if not redeemed, was to be put to death (Ex. 13:13; 34:20).

First-born, Sanctification of the - A peculiar sanctity was attached to the first-born both of man and of cattle. God claimed that the first-born males of man and of animals should be consecrated to him, the one as a priest (Ex. 19:22, 24), representing the family to which he belonged, and the other to be offered up in sacrifice (Gen. 4:4).

First-fruits - The first-fruits of the ground were offered unto God just as the first-born of man and animals.

The law required, (1.) That on the morrow after the Passover Sabbath a sheaf of new corn should be waved by the priest before the altar (Lev. 23:5, 6, 10, 12; 2:12).

(2.) That at the feast of Pentecost two loaves of leavened bread, made from the new flour, were to be waved in like manner (Lev. 23:15, 17; Num. 28:26).

(3.) The feast of Tabernacles was an acknowledgement that the fruits of the harvest were from the Lord (Ex. 23:16; 34:22).

(4.) Every individual, besides, was required to consecrate to God a portion of the first-fruits of the land (Ex. 22:29; 23:19; 34:26; Num. 15:20, 21).

(5.) The law enjoined that no fruit was to be gathered from newly-planted fruit-trees for the first three years, and that the first-fruits of the fourth year were to be consecrated to the Lord (Lev. 19:23-25). Jeremiah (2:3) alludes to the ordinance of "first-fruits," and hence he must have been acquainted with the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, where the laws regarding it are recorded.

Fish - called dag by the Hebrews, a word denoting great fecundity (Gen. 9:2; Num. 11:22; Jonah 2:1, 10). No fish is mentioned by name either in the Old or in the New Testament. Fish abounded in the Mediterranean and in the lakes of the Jordan, so that the Hebrews were no doubt acquainted with many species. Two of the villages on the shores of the Sea of Galilee derived their names from their fisheries, Bethsaida (the "house of fish") on the east and on the west. There is probably no other sheet of water in the world of equal dimensions that contains such a variety and profusion of fish. About thirty-seven different kinds have been found. Some of the fishes are of a European type, such as the roach, the barbel, and the blenny; others are markedly African and tropical, such as the eel-like silurus. There was a regular fish-market apparently in Jerusalem (2 Chr. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10), as there was a fish-gate which was probably contiguous to it.

Sidon is the oldest fishing establishment known in history.

Fisher - Besides its literal sense (Luke 5:2), this word is also applied by our Lord to his disciples in a figurative sense (Matt. 4:19; Mark 1:17).

Fish-hooks - were used for catching fish (Amos 4:2; comp. Isa. 37:29; Jer. 16:16; Ezek. 29:4; Job. 41:1, 2; Matt. 17:27).

Fishing, the art of - was prosecuted with great industry in the waters of Palestine. It was from the fishing-nets that Jesus called his disciples (Mark 1:16-20), and it was in a fishing-boat he rebuked the winds and the waves (Matt. 8:26) and delivered that remarkable series of prophecies recorded in Matt. 13. He twice miraculously fed multitudes with fish and bread (Matt. 14:19; 15:36). It was in the mouth of a fish that the tribute-money was found (Matt. 17:27). And he "ate a piece of broiled fish" with his disciples after his resurrection (Luke 24:42, 43; comp. Acts 1:3). At the Sea of Tiberias (John 21:1-14), in obedience to his direction, the disciples cast their net "on the right side of the ship," and enclosed so many that "they were not able to draw it for the multitude of fishes."

Two kinds of fishing-nets are mentioned in the New Testament:

(1.) The casting-net (Matt. 4:18; Mark 1:16).

(2.) The drag-net or seine (Matt. 13:48).

Fish were also caught by the fishing-hook (Matt. 17:27). (See NET.)

Fish-pools - (Cant. 7:4) should be simply "pools," as in the Revised Version. The reservoirs near Heshbon (q.v.) were probably stocked with fish (2 Sam. 2:13; 4:12; Isa. 7:3; 22:9, 11).

Fitches - (Isa. 28:25, 27), the rendering of the Hebrew ketsah, "without doubt the Nigella sativa, a small annual of the order Ranunculacece, which grows wild in the Mediterranean countries, and is cultivated in Egypt and Syria for its seed." It is rendered in margin of the Revised Version "black cummin." The seeds are used as a condiment.

In Ezek. 4:9 this word is the rendering of the Hebrew kussemeth (incorrectly rendered "rye" in the Authorized Version of Ex. 9:32 and Isa. 28:25, but "spelt" in the Revised Version). The reading "fitches" here is an error; it should be "spelt."

Flag - (Heb., or rather Egyptian, ahu, Job 8:11), rendered "meadow" in Gen. 41:2, 18; probably the Cyperus esculentus, a species of rush eaten by cattle, the Nile reed. It also grows in Palestine.

In Ex. 2:3, 5, Isa. 19:6, it is the rendering of the Hebrew suph_, a word which occurs frequently in connection with _yam; as yam suph, to denote the "Red Sea" (q.v.) or the sea of weeds (as this word is rendered, Jonah 2:5). It denotes some kind of sedge or reed which grows in marshy places. (See PAPER ¯T0002840, REED.)

Flagon - Heb. ashishah, (2 Sam. 6:19; 1 Chr. 16:3; Cant. 2:5; Hos. 3:1), meaning properly "a cake of pressed raisins." "Flagons of wine" of the Authorized Version should be, as in the Revised Version, "cakes of raisins" in all these passages. In Isa. 22:24 it is the rendering of the Hebrew nebel, which properly means a bottle or vessel of skin. (Comp. 1 Sam. 1:24; 10:3; 25:18; 2 Sam. 16:1, where the same Hebrew word is used.)

Flame of fire - is the chosen symbol of the holiness of God (Ex. 3:2; Rev. 2:18), as indicating "the intense, all-consuming operation of his holiness in relation to sin."

Flax - (Heb. pishtah, i.e., "peeled", in allusion to the fact that the stalks of flax when dried were first split or peeled before being steeped in water for the purpose of destroying the pulp). This plant was cultivated from earliest times. The flax of Egypt was destroyed by the plague of hail when it "was bolled", i.e., was forming pods for seed (Ex. 9:31). It was extensively cultivated both in Egypt and Palestine. Reference is made in Josh. 2:6 to the custom of drying flax-stalks by exposing them to the sun on the flat roofs of houses. It was much used in forming articles of clothing such as girdles, also cords and bands (Lev. 13:48, 52, 59; Deut. 22:11). (See LINEN.)

Flea - David at the cave of Adullam thus addressed his persecutor Saul (1 Sam. 24:14): "After whom is the king of Israel come out? after whom dost thou pursue? after a dead dog, after a flea?" He thus speaks of himself as the poor, contemptible object of the monarch's pursuit, a "worthy object truly for an expedition of the king of Israel with his picked troops!" This insect is in Eastern language the popular emblem of insignificance. In 1 Sam. 26:20 the LXX. read "come out to seek my life" instead of "to seek a flea."

Fleece - the wool of a sheep, whether shorn off or still attached to the skin (Deut. 18:4; Job 31:20). The miracle of Gideon's fleece (Judg. 6:37-40) consisted in the dew having fallen at one time on the fleece without any on the floor, and at another time in the fleece remaining dry while the ground was wet with dew.

Flesh - in the Old Testament denotes (1) a particular part of the body of man and animals (Gen. 2:21; 41:2; Ps. 102:5, marg.); (2) the whole body (Ps. 16:9); (3) all living things having flesh, and particularly humanity as a whole (Gen. 6:12, 13); (4) mutability and weakness (2 Chr. 32:8; comp. Isa. 31:3; Ps. 78:39). As suggesting the idea of softness it is used in the expression "heart of flesh" (Ezek. 11:19). The expression "my flesh and bone" (Judg. 9:2; Isa. 58:7) denotes relationship.

In the New Testament, besides these it is also used to denote the sinful element of human nature as opposed to the "Spirit" (Rom. 6:19; Matt. 16:17). Being "in the flesh" means being unrenewed (Rom. 7:5; 8:8, 9), and to live "according to the flesh" is to live and act sinfully (Rom. 8:4, 5, 7, 12).

This word also denotes the human nature of Christ (John 1:14, "The Word was made flesh." Comp. also 1 Tim. 3:16; Rom. 1:3).

Flesh-hook - a many-pronged fork used in the sacrificial services (1 Sam. 2:13, 14; Ex. 27:3; 38:3) by the priest in drawing away the flesh. The fat of the sacrifice, together with the breast and shoulder (Lev. 7:29-34), were presented by the worshipper to the priest. The fat was burned on the alter (3:3-5), and the breast and shoulder became the portion of the priests. But Hophni and Phinehas, not content with this, sent a servant to seize with a flesh-hook a further portion.

Flint - abounds in all the plains and valleys of the wilderness of the forty years' wanderings. In Isa. 50:7 and Ezek. 3:9 the expressions, where the word is used, means that the "Messiah would be firm and resolute amidst all contempt and scorn which he would meet; that he had made up his mind to endure it, and would not shrink from any kind or degree of suffering which would be necessary to accomplish the great work in which he was engaged." (Comp. Ezek. 3:8, 9.) The words "like a flint" are used with reference to the hoofs of horses (Isa. 5:28).

Flood - an event recorded in Gen. 7 and 8. (See DELUGE.) In Josh. 24:2, 3, 14, 15, the word "flood" (R.V., "river") means the river Euphrates. In Ps. 66:6, this word refers to the river Jordan.

Flour - Grain reduced to the form of meal is spoken of in the time of Abraham (Gen. 18:6). As baking was a daily necessity, grain was also ground daily at the mills (Jer. 25:10). The flour mingled with water was kneaded in kneading-troughs, and sometimes leaven (Ex. 12:34) was added and sometimes omitted (Gen. 19:3). The dough was then formed into thin cakes nine or ten inches in diameter and baked in the oven.

Fine flour was offered by the poor as a sin-offering (Lev. 5:11-13), and also in connection with other sacrifices (Num. 15:3-12; 28:7-29).

Flowers - Very few species of flowers are mentioned in the Bible although they abounded in Palestine. It has been calculated that in Western Syria and Palestine from two thousand to two thousand five hundred plants are found, of which about five hundred probably are British wild-flowers. Their beauty is often alluded to (Cant. 2:12; Matt. 6:28). They are referred to as affording an emblem of the transitory nature of human life (Job 14:2; Ps. 103:15; Isa. 28:1; 40:6; James 1:10). Gardens containing flowers and fragrant herbs are spoken of (Cant. 4:16; 6:2).

Flute - a musical instrument, probably composed of a number of pipes, mentioned Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15.

In Matt. 9:23, 24, notice is taken of players on the flute, here called "minstrels" (but in R.V. "flute-players").

Flutes were in common use among the ancient Egyptians.

Fly - Heb. zebub, (Eccl. 10:1; Isa. 7:18). This fly was so grievous a pest that the Phoenicians invoked against it the aid of their god Baal-zebub (q.v.). The prophet Isaiah (7:18) alludes to some poisonous fly which was believed to be found on the confines of Egypt, and which would be called by the Lord. Poisonous flies exist in many parts of Africa, for instance, the different kinds of tsetse.

Heb. 'arob, the name given to the insects sent as a plague on the land of Egypt (Ex. 8:21-31; Ps. 78:45; 105:31). The LXX. render this by a word which means the "dog-fly," the cynomuia. The Jewish commentators regarded the Hebrew word here as connected with the word 'arab, which means "mingled;" and they accordingly supposed the plague to consist of a mixed multitude of animals, beasts, reptiles, and insects. But there is no doubt that "the 'arab" denotes a single definite species. Some interpreters regard it as the Blatta orientalis, the cockroach, a species of beetle. These insects "inflict very painful bites with their jaws; gnaw and destroy clothes, household furniture, leather, and articles of every kind, and either consume or render unavailable all eatables."

Foam - (Hos. 10:7), the rendering of ketseph, which properly means twigs or splinters (as rendered in the LXX. and marg. R.V.). The expression in Hosea may therefore be read, "as a chip on the face of the water," denoting the helplessness of the piece of wood as compared with the irresistable current.

Fodder - Heb. belil, (Job 6:5), meaning properly a mixture or medley (Lat. farrago), "made up of various kinds of grain, as wheat, barley, vetches, and the like, all mixed together, and then sown or given to cattle" (Job 24:6, A.V. "corn," R.V. "provender;" Isa. 30:24, provender").

Fold - an enclosure for flocks to rest together (Isa. 13:20). Sheep-folds are mentioned Num. 32:16, 24, 36; 2 Sam. 7:8; Zeph. 2:6; John 10:1, etc. It was prophesied of the cities of Ammon (Ezek. 25:5), Aroer (Isa. 17:2), and Judaea, that they would be folds or couching-places for flocks. "Among the pots," of the Authorized Version (Ps. 68:13), is rightly in the Revised Version, "among the sheepfolds."

Food - Originally the Creator granted the use of the vegetable world for food to man (Gen. 1:29), with the exception mentioned (2:17). The use of animal food was probably not unknown to the antediluvians. There is, however, a distinct law on the subject given to Noah after the Deluge (Gen. 9:2-5). Various articles of food used in the patriarchal age are mentioned in Gen. 18:6-8; 25:34; 27:3, 4; 43:11. Regarding the food of the Israelites in Egypt, see Ex. 16:3; Num. 11:5. In the wilderness their ordinary food was miraculously supplied in the manna. They had also quails (Ex. 16:11-13; Num. 11:31).

In the law of Moses there are special regulations as to the animals to be used for food (Lev. 11; Deut. 14:3-21). The Jews were also forbidden to use as food anything that had been consecrated to idols (Ex. 34:15), or animals that had died of disease or had been torn by wild beasts (Ex. 22:31; Lev. 22:8). (See also for other restrictions Ex. 23:19; 29:13-22; Lev. 3:4-9; 9:18, 19; 22:8; Deut. 14:21.) But beyond these restrictions they had a large grant from God (Deut. 14:26; 32:13, 14).

Food was prepared for use in various ways. The cereals were sometimes eaten without any preparation (Lev. 23:14; Deut. 23:25; 2 Kings 4:42). Vegetables were cooked by boiling (Gen. 25:30, 34; 2 Kings 4:38, 39), and thus also other articles of food were prepared for use (Gen. 27:4; Prov. 23:3; Ezek. 24:10; Luke 24:42; John 21:9). Food was also prepared by roasting (Ex. 12:8; Lev. 2:14). (See COOK.)

Footstool - connected with a throne (2 Chr. 9:18). Jehovah symbolically dwelt in the holy place between the cherubim above the ark of the covenant. The ark was his footstool (1 Chr. 28:2; Ps. 99:5; 132:7). And as heaven is God's throne, so the earth is his footstool (Ps. 110:1; Isa. 66:1; Matt. 5:35).

Forces - of the Gentiles (Isa. 60:5, 11; R.V., "the wealth of the nations") denotes the wealth of the heathen. The whole passage means that the wealth of the Gentile world should be consecrated to the service of the church.

Ford - Mention is frequently made of the fords of the Jordan (Josh. 2:7; Judg. 3:28; 12:5, 6), which must have been very numerous; about fifty perhaps. The most notable was that of Bethabara. Mention is also made of the ford of the Jabbok (Gen. 32:22), and of the fords of Arnon (Isa. 16:2) and of the Euphrates (Jer. 51:32).

Forehead - The practice common among Oriental nations of colouring the forehead or impressing on it some distinctive mark as a sign of devotion to some deity is alluded to in Rev. 13:16, 17; 14:9; 17:5; 20:4.

The "jewel on thy forehead" mentioned in Ezek. 16:12 (R.V., "a ring upon thy nose") was in all probability the "nose-ring" (Isa. 3:21).

In Ezek. 3:7 the word "impudent" is rightly rendered in the Revised Version "an hard forehead." (See also ver. 8, 9.)

Foreigner - a Gentile. Such as resided among the Hebrews were required by the law to be treated with kindness (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; 23:22; Deut. 14:28; 16:10, 11; 24:19). They enjoyed in many things equal rights with the native-born residents (Ex. 12:49; Lev. 24:22; Num. 15:15; 35:15), but were not allowed to do anything which was an abomination according to the Jewish law (Ex. 20:10; Lev. 17:15,16; 18:26; 20:2; 24:16, etc.).

Foreknowledge of God - Acts 2:23; Rom. 8:29; 11:2; 1 Pet. 1:2), one of those high attributes essentially appertaining to him the full import of which we cannot comprehend. In the most absolute sense his knowledge is infinite (1 Sam. 23:9-13; Jer. 38:17-23; 42:9-22, Matt. 11:21, 23; Acts 15:18).

Forerunner - John the Baptist went before our Lord in this character (Mark 1:2, 3). Christ so called (Heb. 6:20) as entering before his people into the holy place as their head and guide.

Forest - Heb. ya'ar, meaning a dense wood, from its luxuriance. Thus all the great primeval forests of Syria (Eccl. 2:6; Isa. 44:14; Jer. 5:6; Micah 5:8). The most extensive was the trans-Jordanic forest of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:6, 8; Josh. 17:15, 18), which is probably the same as the wood of Ephratah (Ps. 132:6), some part of the great forest of Gilead. It was in this forest that Absalom was slain by Joab. David withdrew to the forest of Hareth in the mountains of Judah to avoid the fury of Saul (1 Sam. 22:5). We read also of the forest of Bethel (2 Kings 2:23, 24), and of that which the Israelites passed in their pursuit of the Philistines (1 Sam. 14:25), and of the forest of the cedars of Lebanon (1 Kings 4:33; 2 Kings 19:23; Hos. 14:5, 6).

"The house of the forest of Lebanon (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17; 2 Chr. 9:16) was probably Solomon's armoury, and was so called because the wood of its many pillars came from Lebanon, and they had the appearance of a forest. (See BAALBEC.)

Heb. horesh, denoting a thicket of trees, underwood, jungle, bushes, or trees entangled, and therefore affording a safe hiding-place. place. This word is rendered "forest" only in 2 Chr. 27:4. It is also rendered "wood", the "wood" in the "wilderness of Ziph," in which david concealed himself (1 Sam. 23:15), which lay south-east of Hebron. In Isa. 17:19 this word is in Authorized Version rendered incorrectly "bough."

Heb. pardes, meaning an enclosed garden or plantation. Asaph is (Neh. 2:8) called the "keeper of the king's forest." The same Hebrew word is used Eccl. 2:5, where it is rendered in the plural "orchards" (R.V., "parks"), and Cant. 4: 13, rendered "orchard" (R.V. marg., "a paradise").

"The forest of the vintage" (Zech. 11:2, "inaccessible forest," or R.V. "strong forest") is probably a figurative allusion to Jerusalem, or the verse may simply point to the devastation of the region referred to.

The forest is an image of unfruitfulness as contrasted with a cultivated field (Isa. 29:17; 32:15; Jer. 26:18; Hos. 2:12). Isaiah (10:19, 33, 34) likens the Assyrian host under Sennacherib (q.v.) to the trees of some huge forest, to be suddenly cut down by an unseen stroke.

Forgiveness of sin - one of the constituent parts of justification. In pardoning sin, God absolves the sinner from the condemnation of the law, and that on account of the work of Christ, i.e., he removes the guilt of sin, or the sinner's actual liability to eternal wrath on account of it. All sins are forgiven freely (Acts 5:31; 13:38; 1 John 1:6-9). The sinner is by this act of grace for ever freed from the guilt and penalty of his sins. This is the peculiar prerogative of God (Ps. 130:4; Mark 2:5). It is offered to all in the gospel. (See JUSTIFICATION.)

Fornication - in every form of it was sternly condemned by the Mosaic law (Lev. 21:9; 19:29; Deut. 22:20, 21, 23-29; 23:18; Ex. 22:16). (See ADULTERY.)

But this word is more frequently used in a symbolical than in its ordinary sense. It frequently means a forsaking of God or a following after idols (Isa. 1:2; Jer. 2:20; Ezek. 16; Hos. 1:2; 2:1-5; Jer. 3:8,9).

Fortunatus - fortunate, a disciple of Corinth who visited Paul at Ephesus, and returned with Stephanas and Achaicus, the bearers of the apostle's first letter to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 16:17).

Fountain - (Heb. 'ain; i.e., "eye" of the water desert), a natural source of living water. Palestine was a "land of brooks of water, of fountains, and depths that spring out of valleys and hills" (Deut. 8:7; 11:11).

These fountains, bright sparkling "eyes" of the desert, are remarkable for their abundance and their beauty, especially on the west of Jordan. All the perennial rivers and streams of the country are supplied from fountains, and depend comparatively little on surface water. "Palestine is a country of mountains and hills, and it abounds in fountains of water. The murmur of these waters is heard in every dell, and the luxuriant foliage which surrounds them is seen in every plain." Besides its rain-water, its cisterns and fountains, Jerusalem had also an abundant supply of water in the magnificent reservoir called "Solomon's Pools" (q.v.), at the head of the Urtas valley, whence it was conveyed to the city by subterrean channels some 10 miles in length. These have all been long ago destroyed, so that no water from the "Pools" now reaches Jerusalem. Only one fountain has been discovered at Jerusalem, the so-called "Virgins's Fountains," in the valley of Kidron; and only one well (Heb. beer), the Bir Eyub, also in the valley of Kidron, south of the King's Gardens, which has been dug through the solid rock. The inhabitants of Jerusalem are now mainly dependent on the winter rains, which they store in cisterns. (See WELL.)

Fountain of the Virgin - the perennial source from which the Pool of Siloam (q.v.) is supplied, the waters flowing in a copious stream to it through a tunnel cut through the rock, the actual length of which is 1,750 feet. The spring rises in a cave 20 feet by 7. A serpentine tunnel 67 feet long runs from it toward the left, off which the tunnel to the Pool of Siloam branches. It is the only unfailing fountain in Jerusalem.

The fountain received its name from the "fantastic legend" that here the virgin washed the swaddling-clothes of our Lord.

This spring has the singular characteristic of being intermittent, flowing from three to five times daily in winter, twice daily in summer, and only once daily in autumn. This peculiarity is accounted for by the supposition that the outlet from the reservoir is by a passage in the form of a siphon.

Fowler - the arts of, referred to Ps. 91:3; 124:7; Prov. 6:5; Jer. 5:26; Hos. 9:8; Ezek. 17:20; Eccl. 9:12. Birds of all kinds abound in Palestine, and the capture of these for the table and for other uses formed the employment of many persons. The traps and snares used for this purpose are mentioned Hos. 5:1; Prov. 7:23; 22:5; Amos 3:5; Ps. 69:22; comp. Deut. 22:6, 7.

Fox - (Heb. shu'al, a name derived from its digging or burrowing under ground), the Vulpes thaleb, or Syrian fox, the only species of this animal indigenous to Palestine. It burrows, is silent and solitary in its habits, is destructive to vineyards, being a plunderer of ripe grapes (Cant. 2:15). The Vulpes Niloticus, or Egyptian dog-fox, and the Vulpes vulgaris, or common fox, are also found in Palestine.

The proverbial cunning of the fox is alluded to in Ezek. 13:4, and in Luke 13:32, where our Lord calls Herod "that fox." In Judg. 15:4, 5, the reference is in all probability to the jackal. The Hebrew word shu'al_ through the Persian _schagal becomes our jackal (Canis aureus), so that the word may bear that signification here. The reasons for preferring the rendering "jackal" are (1) that it is more easily caught than the fox; (2) that the fox is shy and suspicious, and flies mankind, while the jackal does not; and (3) that foxes are difficult, jackals comparatively easy, to treat in the way here described. Jackals hunt in large numbers, and are still very numerous in Southern Palestine.

Frankincense - (Heb. lebonah; Gr. libanos, i.e., "white"), an odorous resin imported from Arabia (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20), yet also growing in Palestine (Cant. 4:14). It was one of the ingredients in the perfume of the sanctuary (Ex. 30:34), and was used as an accompaniment of the meat-offering (Lev. 2:1, 16; 6:15; 24:7). When burnt it emitted a fragrant odour, and hence the incense became a symbol of the Divine name (Mal. 1:11; Cant. 1:3) and an emblem of prayer (Ps. 141:2; Luke 1:10; Rev. 5:8; 8:3).

This frankincense, or olibanum, used by the Jews in the temple services is not to be confounded with the frankincense of modern commerce, which is an exudation of the Norway spruce fir, the Pinus abies. It was probably a resin from the Indian tree known to botanists by the name of Boswellia serrata or thurifera, which grows to the height of forty feet.

Freedom - The law of Moses pointed out the cases in which the servants of the Hebrews were to receive their freedom (Ex. 21:2-4, 7, 8; Lev. 25:39-42, 47-55; Deut. 15:12-18). Under the Roman law the "freeman" (ingenuus) was one born free; the "freedman" (libertinus) was a manumitted slave, and had not equal rights with the freeman (Acts 22:28; comp. Acts 16:37-39; 21:39; 22:25; 25:11, 12).

Free-will offering - a spontaneous gift (Ex. 35:29), a voluntary sacrifice (Lev. 22:23; Ezra 3:5), as opposed to one in consequence of a vow, or in expiation of some offence.

Frog - (Heb. tsepharde'a, meaning a "marsh-leaper"). This reptile is mentioned in the Old Testament only in connection with one of the plagues which fell on the land of Egypt (Ex. 8:2-14; Ps. 78:45; 105:30).

In the New Testament this word occurs only in Rev. 16:13, where it is referred to as a symbol of uncleanness. The only species of frog existing in Palestine is the green frog (Rana esculenta), the well-known edible frog of the Continent.

Frontlets - occurs only in Ex. 13:16; Deut. 6:8, and 11:18. The meaning of the injunction to the Israelites, with regard to the statues and precepts given them, that they should "bind them for a sign upon their hand, and have them as frontlets between their eyes," was that they should keep them distinctly in view and carefully attend to them. But soon after their return from Babylon they began to interpret this injunction literally, and had accordingly portions of the law written out and worn about their person. These they called tephillin, i.e., "prayers." The passages so written out on strips of parchment were these, Ex. 12:2-10; 13:11-21; Deut. 6:4-9; 11:18-21. They were then "rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which was attached to a stiffer piece of leather, having a thong one finger broad and one cubit and a half long. Those worn on the forehead were written on four strips of parchment, and put into four little cells within a square case, which had on it the Hebrew letter called shin, the three points of which were regarded as an emblem of God." This case tied around the forehead in a particular way was called "the tephillah on the head." (See PHYLACTERY.)

Frost - (Heb. kerah, from its smoothness) Job 37:10 (R.V., "ice"); Gen. 31:40; Jer. 36:30; rendered "ice" in Job 6:16, 38:29; and "crystal" in Ezek. 1:22. "At the present day frost is entirely unknown in the lower portions of the valley of the Jordan, but slight frosts are sometimes felt on the sea-coast and near Lebanon." Throughout Western Asia cold frosty nights are frequently succeeded by warm days.

"Hoar frost" (Heb. kephor, so called from its covering the ground) is mentioned in Ex. 16:14; Job 38:29; Ps. 147:16.

In Ps. 78:47 the word rendered "frost" (R.V. marg., "great hail-stones"), hanamal, occurs only there. It is rendered by Gesenius, the Hebrew lexicographer, "ant," and so also by others, but the usual interpretation derived from the ancient versions may be maintained.

Fruit - a word as used in Scripture denoting produce in general, whether vegetable or animal. The Hebrews divided the fruits of the land into three classes:,

(1.) The fruit of the field, "corn-fruit" (Heb. dagan); all kinds of grain and pulse.

(2.) The fruit of the vine, "vintage-fruit" (Heb. tirosh); grapes, whether moist or dried.

(3.) "Orchard-fruits" (Heb. yitshar), as dates, figs, citrons, etc.

Injunctions concerning offerings and tithes were expressed by these Hebrew terms alone (Num. 18:12; Deut. 14:23). This word "fruit" is also used of children or offspring (Gen. 30:2; Deut. 7:13; Luke 1:42; Ps. 21:10; 132:11); also of the progeny of beasts (Deut. 28:51; Isa. 14:29).

It is used metaphorically in a variety of forms (Ps. 104:13; Prov. 1:31; 11:30; 31:16; Isa. 3:10; 10:12; Matt. 3:8; 21:41; 26:29; Heb. 13:15; Rom. 7:4, 5; 15:28).

The fruits of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22, 23; Eph. 5:9; James 3:17, 18) are those gracious dispositions and habits which the Spirit produces in those in whom he dwells and works.

Frying-pan - (Heb. marhesheth, a "boiler"), a pot for boiling meat (Lev. 2:7; 7:9).

Fuel - Almost every kind of combustible matter was used for fuel, such as the withered stalks of herbs (Matt. 6:30), thorns (Ps. 58:9; Eccl. 7:6), animal excrements (Ezek. 4:12-15; 15:4, 6; 21:32). Wood or charcoal is much used still in all the towns of Syria and Egypt. It is largely brought from the region of Hebron to Jerusalem. (See COAL.)

Fugitive - Gen. 4:12, 14, a rover or wanderer (Heb. n'a); Judg. 12:4, a refugee, one who has escaped (Heb. palit); 2 Kings 25:11, a deserter, one who has fallen away to the enemy (Heb. nophel); Ezek. 17:21, one who has broken away in flight (Heb. mibrah); Isa. 15:5; 43:14, a breaker away, a fugitive (Heb. beriah), one who flees away.

Fuller - The word "full" is from the Anglo-Saxon fullian, meaning "to whiten." To full is to press or scour cloth in a mill. This art is one of great antiquity. Mention is made of "fuller's soap" (Mal. 3:2), and of "the fuller's field" (2 Kings 18:17). At his transfiguration our Lord's rainment is said to have been white "so as no fuller on earth could white them" (Mark 9:3). En-rogel (q.v.), meaning literally "foot-fountain," has been interpreted as the "fuller's fountain," because there the fullers trod the cloth with their feet.

Fuller's field - a spot near Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:17; Isa. 36:2; 7:3), on the side of the highway west of the city, not far distant from the "upper pool" at the head of the valley of Hinnom. Here the fullers pursued their occupation.

Fuller's soap - (Heb. borith mekabbeshim, i.e., "alkali of those treading cloth"). Mention is made (Prov. 25:20; Jer. 2:22) of nitre and also (Mal. 3:2) of soap (Heb. borith) used by the fuller in his operations. Nitre is found in Syria, and vegetable alkali was obtained from the ashes of certain plants. (See SOAP.)

Fulness - (1.) Of time (Gal. 4:4), the time appointed by God, and foretold by the prophets, when Messiah should appear. (2.) Of Christ (John 1:16), the superabundance of grace with which he was filled. (3.) Of the Godhead bodily dwelling in Christ (Col. 2:9), i.e., the whole nature and attributes of God are in Christ. (4.) Eph. 1:23, the church as the fulness of Christ, i.e., the church makes Christ a complete and perfect head.

Funeral - Burying was among the Jews the only mode of disposing of corpses (Gen. 23:19; 25:9; 35:8, 9, etc.).

The first traces of burning the dead are found in 1 Sam. 31:12. The burning of the body was affixed by the law of Moses as a penalty to certain crimes (Lev. 20:14; 21:9).

To leave the dead unburied was regarded with horror (1 Kings 13:22; 14:11; 16:4; 21:24, etc.).

In the earliest times of which we have record kinsmen carried their dead to the grave (Gen. 25:9; 35:29; Judg. 16:31), but in later times this was done by others (Amos 6:16).

Immediately after decease the body was washed, and then wrapped in a large cloth (Acts 9:37; Matt. 27:59; Mark 15:46). In the case of persons of distinction, aromatics were laid on the folds of the cloth (John 19:39; comp. John 12:7).

As a rule the burial (q.v.) took place on the very day of the death (Acts 5:6, 10), and the body was removed to the grave in an open coffin or on a bier (Luke 7:14). After the burial a funeral meal was usually given (2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16:5, 7; Hos. 9:4).

Furlong - a stadium, a Greek measure of distance equal to 606 feet and 9 inches (Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

Furnace - (1.) Chald. attun, a large furnace with a wide open mouth, at the top of which materials were cast in (Dan. 3:22, 23; comp. Jer. 29:22). This furnace would be in constant requisition, for the Babylonians disposed of their dead by cremation, as did also the Accadians who invaded Mesopotamia.

(2.) Heb. kibshan, a smelting furnace (Gen. 19:28), also a lime-kiln (Isa. 33:12; Amos 2:1).

(3.) Heb. kur, a refining furnace (Prov. 17:3; 27:21; Ezek. 22:18).

(4.) Heb. alil, a crucible; only used in Ps. 12:6.

(5.) Heb. tannur, oven for baking bread (Gen. 15:17; Isa. 31:9; Neh. 3:11). It was a large pot, narrowing towards the top. When it was heated by a fire made within, the dough was spread over the heated surface, and thus was baked. "A smoking furnace and a burning lamp" (Gen. 15:17), the symbol of the presence of the Almighty, passed between the divided pieces of Abraham's sacrifice in ratification of the covenant God made with him. (See OVEN.)

(6.) Gr. kamnos, a furnace, kiln, or oven (Matt. 13:42, 50; Rev. 1:15; 9:2).

Furrow - an opening in the ground made by the plough (Ps. 65:10; Hos. 10:4, 10).

Fury - as attributed to God, is a figurative expression for dispensing afflictive judgments (Lev. 26:28; Job 20:23; Isa. 63:3; Jer. 4:4; Ezek. 5:13; Dan. 9:16; Zech. 8:2).

"G"

Gaal - loathing, the son of Ebed, in whom the Shechemites "placed their confidence" when they became discontented with Abimelech. He headed the revolution, and led out the men of Shechem against Abimelech; but was defeated, and fled to his own home (Judg. 9:26-46). We hear no more of him after this battle.

Gaash - a shaking, a hill, on the north side of which Joshua was buried (Josh. 24:30; Judg. 2:9), in the territory of Ephraim. (See TIMNATH-SERAH ¯T0003664.)

Gabbatha - Gab Baitha, i.e., "the ridge of the house" = "the temple-mound," on a part of which the fortress of Antonia was built. This "temple-mound" was covered with a tesselated "pavement" (Gr. lithostroton, i.e., "stone-paved"). A judgement-seat (bema) was placed on this "pavement" outside the hall of the "praetorium" (q.v.), the judgment-hall (John 18:28; 19:13).

Gabriel - champion of God, used as a proper name to designate the angel who was sent to Daniel (8:16) to explain the vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction of the seventy weeks (Dan. 9:21-27).

He announced also the birth of John the Baptist (Luke 1:11), and of the Messiah (26). He describes himself in the words, "I am Gabriel, who stand in the presence of God" (1:19).

Gad - fortune; luck. (1.) Jacob's seventh son, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, and the brother of Asher (Gen. 30:11-13; 46:16, 18). In the Authorized Version of 30:11 the words, "A troop cometh: and she called," etc., should rather be rendered, "In fortune [R.V., 'Fortunate']: and she called," etc., or "Fortune cometh," etc.

The tribe of Gad during the march through the wilderness had their place with Simeon and Reuben on the south side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:14). The tribes of Reuben and Gad continued all through their history to follow the pastoral pursuits of the patriarchs (Num. 32:1-5).

The portion allotted to the tribe of Gad was on the east of Jordan, and comprehended the half of Gilead, a region of great beauty and fertility (Deut. 3:12), bounded on the east by the Arabian desert, on the west by the Jordan (Josh. 13:27), and on the north by the river Jabbok. It thus included the whole of the Jordan valley as far north as to the Sea of Galilee, where it narrowed almost to a point.

This tribe was fierce and warlike; they were "strong men of might, men of war for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, their faces the faces of lions, and like roes upon the mountains for swiftness" (1 Chr. 12:8; 5:19-22). Barzillai (2 Sam. 17:27) and Elijah (1 Kings 17:1) were of this tribe. It was carried into captivity at the same time as the other tribes of the northern kingdom by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr. 5:26), and in the time of Jeremiah (49:1) their cities were inhabited by the Ammonites.

(2.) A prophet who joined David in the "hold," and at whose advice he quitted it for the forest of Hareth (1 Chr. 29:29; 2 Chr. 29:25; 1 Sam. 22:5). Many years after we find mention made of him in connection with the punishment inflicted for numbering the people (2 Sam. 24:11-19; 1 Chr. 21:9-19). He wrote a book called the "Acts of David" (1 Chr. 29:29), and assisted in the arrangements for the musical services of the "house of God" (2 Chr. 29:25). He bore the title of "the king's seer" (2 Sam. 24:11, 13; 1 Chr. 21:9).

Gadara - the capital of the Roman province of Peraea. It stood on the summit of a mountain about 6 miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee. Mark (5:1) and Luke (8:26-39) describe the miracle of the healing of the demoniac (Matthew [8:28-34] says two demoniacs) as having been wrought "in the country of the Gadarenes," thus describing the scene generally. The miracle could not have been wrought at Gadara itself, for between the lake and this town there is the deep, almost impassable ravine of the Hieromax (Jarmuk). It is identified with the modern village of Um-Keis, which is surrounded by very extensive ruins, all bearing testimony to the splendour of ancient Gadara.

"The most interesting remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot the cliffs for a considerable distance round the city, chiefly on the north-east declivity; but many beautifully sculptured sarcophagi are scattered over the surrounding heights. They are excavated in the limestone rock, and consist of chambers of various dimensions, some more than 20 feet square, with recesses in the sides for bodies...The present inhabitants of Um-Keis are all troglodytes, 'dwelling in tombs,' like the poor maniacs of old, and occasionally they are almost as dangerous to unprotected travellers."

Gadarenes - the inhabitants of Gadara, in Revised Version "Gerasenes" (Mark 5:1; Luke 8:26, 37). In Matt. 8:28 they are called Gergesenes, Revised Version "Gadarenes."

Gaddi - fortunate, the representative of the tribe of Manasseh among the twelve "spies" sent by Moses to spy the land (Num. 13:11).

Gaddiel - fortune (i.e., sent) of God, the representative of the tribe of Zebulum among the twelve spies (Num. 13:10).

Gahar - lurking-place, one of the chief of the Nethinim, whose descendants returned to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:47).

Gaius - (1.) A Macedonian, Paul's fellow-traveller, and his host at Corinth when he wrote his Epistle to the Romans (16:23). He with his household were baptized by Paul (1 Cor. 1:14). During a heathen outbreak against Paul at Ephesus the mob seized Gaius and Aristarchus because they could not find Paul, and rushed with them into the theatre. Some have identified this Gaius with No. (2).

(2.) A man of Derbe who accompanied Paul into Asia on his last journey to Jerusalem

(3.) A Christain of Asia Minor to whom John addressed his third epistle (3 John 1:1).

Galatia - has been called the "Gallia" of the East, Roman writers calling its inhabitants Galli. They were an intermixture of Gauls and Greeks, and hence were called Gallo-Graeci, and the country Gallo-Graecia. The Galatians were in their origin a part of that great Celtic migration which invaded Macedonia about B.C. 280. They were invited by the king of Bithynia to cross over into Asia Minor to assist him in his wars. There they ultimately settled, and being strengthened by fresh accessions of the same clan from Europe, they overran Bithynia, and supported themselves by plundering neighbouring countries. They were great warriors, and hired themselves out as mercenary soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides in the great battles of the times. They were at length brought under the power of Rome in B.C. 189, and Galatia became a Roman province B.C. 25.

This province of Galatia, within the limits of which these Celtic tribes were confined, was the central region of Asia Minor.

During his second missionary journey Paul, accompanied by Silas and Timothy (Acts 16:6), visited the "region of Galatia," where he was detained by sickness (Gal. 4:13), and had thus the longer opportunity of preaching to them the gospel. On his third journey he went over "all the country of Galatia and Phrygia in order" (Acts 18:23). Crescens was sent thither by Paul toward the close of his life (2 Tim. 4:10).

Galatians, Epistle to - The genuineness of this epistle is not called in question. Its Pauline origin is universally acknowledged.

Occasion of. The churches of Galatia were founded by Paul himself (Acts 16:6; Gal. 1:8; 4:13, 19). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from heathenism (4:8), but partly also of Jewish converts, who probably, under the influence of Judaizing teachers, sought to incorporate the rites of Judaism with Christianity, and by their active zeal had succeeded in inducing the majority of the churches to adopt their views (1:6; 3:1). This epistle was written for the purpose of counteracting this Judaizing tendency, and of recalling the Galatians to the simplicity of the gospel, and at the same time also of vindicating Paul's claim to be a divinely-commissioned apostle.

Time and place of writing. The epistle was probably written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts 18:23). The references of the epistle appear to agree with this conclusion. The visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Gal. 2:1-10, was identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past, and consequently the epistle was written subsequently to the council of Jerusalem. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of A.D. 57-8, during Paul's stay in Corinth (Acts 20:2, 3). This to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same great doctrines of the gospel.

Contents of. The great question discussed is, Was the Jewish law binding on Christians? The epistle is designed to prove against the Jews that men are justified by faith without the works of the law of Moses. After an introductory address (Gal. 1:1-10) the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle. (1) He defends his apostolic authority (1:11-19; 2:1-14); (2) shows the evil influence of the Judaizers in destroying the very essence of the gospel (3 and 4); (3) exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruits of the Spirit, and in a right use of their Christian freedom (5-6:1-10); (4) and then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed, and with the benediction.

The Epistle to the Galatians and that to the Romans taken together "form a complete proof that justification is not to be obtained meritoriously either by works of morality or by rites and ceremonies, though of divine appointment; but that it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from the mercy of God, to those who receive it by faith in Jesus our Lord."

In the conclusion of the epistle (6:11) Paul says, "Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand. Regarding this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on the epistle, says: "At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess. 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries...In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul." (See JUSTIFICATION.)

Galbanum - Heb. helbenah, (Ex. 30:34), one of the ingredients in the holy incense. It is a gum, probably from the Galbanum officinale.

Galeed - heap of witness, the name of the pile of stones erected by Jacob and Laban to mark the league of friendship into which they entered with each other (Gen. 31:47, 48). This was the name given to the "heap" by Jacob. It is Hebrew, while the name Jegar-sahadutha, given to it by Laban, is Aramaic (Chaldee or Syriac). Probably Nahor's family originally spoke Aramaic, and Abraham and his descendants learned Hebrew, a kindred dialect, in the land of Canaan.

Galilean - an inhabitant or native of Galilee. This word was used as a name of contempt as applied to our Lord's disciples (Luke 22:59; Acts 2:7). All the apostles, with the exception of Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:11), were Galileans. Peter was detected by his Galilean accent (Matt. 26:69; Mark 14:70).

This was also one of the names of reproach given to the early Christians. Julian the Apostate, as he is called, not only used the epithet himself when referring to Christ and his apostles, but he made it a law that no one should ever call the Christians by any other name.

Galilee - circuit. Solomon rewarded Hiram for certain services rendered him by the gift of an upland plain among the mountains of Naphtali. Hiram was dissatisfied with the gift, and called it "the land of Cabul" (q.v.). The Jews called it Galil. It continued long to be occupied by the original inhabitants, and hence came to be called "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Matt. 4:15), and also "Upper Galilee," to distinguish it from the extensive addition afterwards made to it toward the south, which was usually called "Lower Galilee." In the time of our Lord, Galilee embraced more than one-third of Western Palestine, extending "from Dan on the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, to the ridges of Carmel and Gilboa on the south, and from the Jordan valley on the east away across the splendid plains of Jezreel and Acre to the shores of the Mediterranean on the west." Palestine was divided into three provinces, Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, which comprehended the whole northern section of the country (Acts 9:31), and was the largest of the three.

It was the scene of some of the most memorable events of Jewish history. Galilee also was the home of our Lord during at least thirty years of his life. The first three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our Lord's public ministry in this province. "The entire province is encircled with a halo of holy associations connected with the life, works, and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth." "It is noteworthy that of his thirty-two beautiful parables, no less than ninteen were spoken in Galilee. And it is no less remarkable that of his entire thirty-three great miracles, twenty-five were wrought in this province. His first miracle was wrought at the wedding in Cana of Galilee, and his last, after his resurrection, on the shore of Galilee's sea. In Galilee our Lord delivered the Sermon on The Mount, and the discourses on 'The Bread of Life,' on 'Purity,' on 'Forgiveness,' and on 'Humility.' In Galilee he called his first disciples; and there occurred the sublime scene of the Transfiguration" (Porter's Through Samaria).

When the Sanhedrin were about to proceed with some plan for the condemnation of our Lord (John 7:45-52), Nicodemus interposed in his behalf. (Comp. Deut. 1:16,17; 17:8.) They replied, "Art thou also of Galilee?.... Out of Galilee ariseth no prophet." This saying of theirs was "not historically true, for two prophets at least had arisen from Galilee, Jonah of Gath-hepher, and the greatest of all the prophets, Elijah of Thisbe, and perhaps also Nahum and Hosea. Their contempt for Galilee made them lose sight of historical accuracy" (Alford, Com.).

The Galilean accent differed from that of Jerusalem in being broader and more guttural (Mark 14:70).

Galilee, Sea of - (Matt. 4:18; 15:29), is mentioned in the Bible under three other names. (1.) In the Old Testament it is called the "sea of Chinnereth" (Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3; 13:27), as is supposed from its harp-like shape. (2). The "lake of Gennesareth" once by Luke (5:1), from the flat district lying on its west coast. (3.) John (6:1; 21:1) calls it the "sea of Tiberias" (q.v.). The modern Arabs retain this name, Bahr Tabariyeh.

This lake is 12 1/2 miles long, and from 4 to 7 1/2 broad. Its surface is 682 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. Its depth is from 80 to 160 feet. The Jordan enters it 10 1/2 miles below the southern extremity of the Huleh Lake, or about 26 1/2 miles from its source. In this distance of 26 1/2 miles there is a fall in the river of 1,682 feet, or of more than 60 feet to the mile. It is 27 miles east of the Mediterranean, and about 60 miles north-east of Jerusalem. It is of an oval shape, and abounds in fish.

Its present appearance is thus described: "The utter loneliness and absolute stillness of the scene are exceedingly impressive. It seems as if all nature had gone to rest, languishing under the scorching heat. How different it was in the days of our Lord! Then all was life and bustle along the shores; the cities and villages that thickly studded them resounded with the hum of a busy population; while from hill-side and corn-field came the cheerful cry of shepherd and ploughman. The lake, too, was dotted with dark fishing-boats and spangled with white sails. Now a mournful, solitary silence reigns over sea and shore. The cities are in ruins!"

This sea is chiefly of interest as associated with the public ministry of our Lord. Capernaum, "his own city" (Matt. 9:1), stood on its shores. From among the fishermen who plied their calling on its waters he chose Peter and his brother Andrew, and James and John, to be disciples, and sent them forth to be "fishers of men" (Matt. 4:18,22; Mark 1:16-20; Luke 5: 1-11). He stilled its tempest, saying to the storm that swept over it, "Peace, be still" (Matt. 8:23-27; Mark 7:31-35); and here also he showed himself after his resurrection to his disciples (John 21).

"The Sea of Galilee is indeed the cradle of the gospel. The subterranean fires of nature prepared a lake basin, through which a river afterwards ran, keeping its waters always fresh. In this basin a vast quantity of shell-fish swarmed, and multiplied to such an extent that they formed the food of an extraordinary profusion of fish. The great variety and abundance of the fish in the lake attracted to its shores a larger and more varied population than existed elsewhere in Palestine, whereby this secluded district was brought into contact with all parts of the world. And this large and varied population, with access to all nations and countries, attracted the Lord Jesus, and induced him to make this spot the centre of his public ministry."

Gall - (1) Heb. mererah, meaning "bitterness" (Job 16:13); i.e., the bile secreted in the liver. This word is also used of the poison of asps (20:14), and of the vitals, the seat of life (25).

(2.) Heb. rosh. In Deut. 32:33 and Job 20:16 it denotes the poison of serpents. In Hos. 10:4 the Hebrew word is rendered "hemlock." The original probably denotes some bitter, poisonous plant, most probably the poppy, which grows up quickly, and is therefore coupled with wormwood (Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; Lam. 3:19). Comp. Jer. 8:14; 23:15, "water of gall," Gesenius, "poppy juice;" others, "water of hemlock," "bitter water."

(3.) Gr. chole (Matt. 27:34), the LXX. translation of the Hebrew rosh in Ps. 69; 21, which foretells our Lord's sufferings. The drink offered to our Lord was vinegar (made of light wine rendered acid, the common drink of Roman soldiers) "mingled with gall," or, according to Mark (15:23), "mingled with myrrh;" both expressions meaning the same thing, namely, that the vinegar was made bitter by the infusion of wormwood or some other bitter substance, usually given, according to a merciful custom, as an anodyne to those who were crucified, to render them insensible to pain. Our Lord, knowing this, refuses to drink it. He would take nothing to cloud his faculties or blunt the pain of dying. He chooses to suffer every element of woe in the bitter cup of agony given him by the Father (John 18:11).

Gallery - (1.) Heb. 'attik (Ezek. 41:15, 16), a terrace; a projection; ledge.

(2.) Heb. rahit (Cant. 1:17), translated "rafters," marg. "galleries;" probably panel-work or fretted ceiling.

Gallim - heaps, (1 Sam. 25:44; Isa. 10:30). The native place of Phalti, to whom Michal was given by Saul. It was probably in Benjamin, to the north of Jerusalem.

Gallio - the elder brother of Seneca the philosopher, who was tutor and for some time minister of the emperor Nero. He was "deputy", i.e., proconsul, as in Revised Version, of Achaia, under the emperor Claudius, when Paul visited Corinth (Acts 18:12). The word used here by Luke in describing the rank of Gallio shows his accuracy. Achaia was a senatorial province under Claudius, and the governor of such a province was called a "proconsul." He is spoken of by his contemporaries as "sweet Gallio," and is described as a most popular and affectionate man. When the Jews brought Paul before his tribunal on the charge of persuading "men to worship God contrary to the law" (18:13), he refused to listen to them, and "drave them from the judgment seat" (18:16).

Gallows - Heb. 'ets, meaning "a tree" (Esther 6:4), a post or gibbet. In Gen. 40:19 and Deut. 21:22 the word is rendered "tree."

Gamaliel - reward of God. (1.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at Sinai (Num. 1:10; 2:20; 7:54, 59).

(2.) The son of rabbi Simeon, and grandson of the famous rabbi Hillel. He was a Pharisse, and therefore the opponent of the party of the Sadducees. He was noted for his learning, and was president of the Sanhedrim during the regins of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, and died, it is said, about eighteen years before the destruction of Jerusalem.

When the apostles were brought before the council, charged with preaching the resurrection of Jesus, as a zealous Pharisee Gamaliel councelled moderation and calmness. By a reference to well-known events, he advised them to "refrain from these men." If their work or counsel was of man, it would come to nothing; but if it was of God, they could not destroy it, and therefore ought to be on their guard lest they should be "found fighting against God" (Acts 5:34-40). Paul was one of his disciples (22:3).

Games - (1.) Of children (Zech. 8:5; Matt. 11:16). The Jewish youth were also apparently instructed in the use of the bow and the sling (Judg. 20:16; 1 Chr. 12:2).

(2.) Public games, such as were common among the Greeks and Romans, were foreign to the Jewish institutions and customs. Reference, however, is made to such games in two passages (Ps. 19:5; Eccl. 9:11).

(3.) Among the Greeks and Romans games entered largely into their social life.

(a) Reference in the New Testament is made to gladiatorial shows and fights with wild beasts (1 Cor. 15:32). These were common among the Romans, and sometimes on a large scale.

(b) Allusion is frequently made to the Grecian gymnastic contests (Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16; 3:14; 1 Tim. 6:12; 2 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 12:1, 4, 12). These were very numerous. The Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games were esteemed as of great national importance, and the victors at any of these games of wrestling, racing, etc., were esteemed as the noblest and the happiest of mortals.

Gammadim - (Ezek. 27:11) brave warriors; R.V. marg., "valorous men;" others interpret this word as meaning "short-swordsmen," or "daring ones", the name of a class of men who were defenders of the towers of Tyre.

Gamul - weaned the leader of one of the priestly courses (1 Chr. 24:17).

Gap - a rent or opening in a wall (Ezek. 13:5; comp. Amos 4:3). The false prophets did not stand in the gap (Ezek. 22: 30), i.e., they did nothing to stop the outbreak of wickedness.

Gardens - mentioned in Scripture, of Eden (Gen. 2:8, 9); Ahab's garden of herbs (1 Kings 21:2); the royal garden (2 Kings 21:18); the royal garden at Susa (Esther 1:5); the garden of Joseph of Arimathea (John 19:41); of Gethsemane (John 18:1).

The "king's garden" mentioned 2 Kings 25:4, Neh. 3:15, was near the Pool of Siloam.

Gardens were surrounded by hedges of thorns (Isa. 5:5) or by walls of stone (Prov. 24:31). "Watch-towers" or "lodges" were also built in them (Isa. 1:8; Mark 12:1), in which their keepers sat. On account of their retirement they were frequently used as places for secret prayer and communion with God (Gen. 24:63; Matt. 26:30-36; John 1:48; 18:1, 2). The dead were sometimes buried in gardens (Gen. 23:19, 20; 2 Kings 21:18, 26; 1 Sam. 25:1; Mark 15:46; John 19:41). (See PARADISE.)

Gareb - scabby; itch. (1.) One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23:38), an Ithrite.

(2.) A hill near Jerusalem (Jer. 31:39), probably the hill of lepers, and consequently a place outside the boundary of the city.

Garlands - (Acts 14:13). In heathen sacrifices the victims were adorned with fillets and garlands made of wool, with leaves and flowers interwoven. The altar and the priests and attendants were also in like manner adorned.

Garlic - (Heb. shum, from its strong odour), mentioned only once (Num. 11:5). The garlic common in Eastern countries is the Allium sativum or Allium Ascalonicum, so called from its having been brought into Europe from Ascalon by the Crusaders. It is now known by the name of "shallot" or "eschalot."

Garner - (1.) Heb. 'otsar, a treasure; a store of goods laid up, and hence also the place where they are deposited (Joel 1:17; 2 Chr. 32:27, rendered "treasury").

(2.) Heb. mezev, a cell, storeroom (Ps. 144:13); Gr. apotheke, a place for storing anything, a granary (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17).

Garnish - overlay with stones (2 Chr. 3:6), adorn (Rev. 21:19), deck with garlands (Matt. 23:29), furnish (12:44).

In Job 26:13 (Heb. shiphrah, meaning "brightness"), "By his spirit the heavens are brightness" i.e., are bright, splendid, beautiful.

Garrison - (1.) Heb. matstsab, a station; a place where one stands (1 Sam. 14:12); a military or fortified post (1 Sam. 13:23; 14:1, 4, 6, etc.).

(2.) Heb. netsib, a prefect, superintendent; hence a military post (1 Sam. 10:5; 13:3, 4; 2 Sam. 8:6). This word has also been explained to denote a pillar set up to mark the Philistine conquest, or an officer appointed to collect taxes; but the idea of a military post seems to be the correct one.

(3.) Heb. matstsebah, properly a monumental column; improperly rendered pl. "garrisons" in Ezek. 26:11; correctly in Revised Version "pillars," marg. "obelisks," probably an idolatrous image.

Gate - (1.) Of cities, as of Jerusalem (Jer. 37:13; Neh. 1:3; 2:3; 3:3), of Sodom (Gen. 19:1), of Gaza (Judg. 16:3).

(2.) Of royal palaces (Neh. 2:8).

(3.) Of the temple of Solomon (1 Kings 6:34, 35; 2 Kings 18:16); of the holy place (1 Kings 6:31, 32; Ezek. 41:23, 24); of the outer courts of the temple, the beautiful gate (Acts 3:2).

(4.) Tombs (Matt. 27:60).

(5.) Prisons (Acts 12:10; 16:27).

(6.) Caverns (1 Kings 19:13).

(7.) Camps (Ex. 32:26, 27; Heb. 13:12).

The materials of which gates were made were,

(1.) Iron and brass (Ps. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Acts 12:10).

(2.) Stones and pearls (Isa. 54:12; Rev. 21:21).

(3.) Wood (Judg. 16:3) probably.

At the gates of cities courts of justice were frequently held, and hence "judges of the gate" are spoken of (Deut. 16:18; 17:8; 21:19; 25:6, 7, etc.). At the gates prophets also frequently delivered their messages (Prov. 1:21; 8:3; Isa. 29:21; Jer. 17:19, 20; 26:10). Criminals were punished without the gates (1 Kings 21:13; Acts 7:59). By the "gates of righteousness" we are probably to understand those of the temple (Ps. 118:19). "The gates of hell" (R.V., "gates of Hades") Matt. 16:18, are generally interpreted as meaning the power of Satan, but probably they may mean the power of death, denoting that the Church of Christ shall never die.

Gath - a wine-vat, one of the five royal cities of the Philistines (Josh. 13:3) on which the ark brought calamity (1 Sam. 5:8, 9; 6:17). It was famous also as being the birthplace or residence of Goliath (1 Sam. 17:4). David fled from Saul to Achish, king of Gath (1 Sam. 21:10; 27:2-4; Ps. 56), and his connection with it will account for the words in 2 Sam. 1:20. It was afterwards conquered by David (2 Sam. 8:1). It occupied a strong position on the borders of Judah and Philistia (1 Sam. 21:10; 1 Chr. 18:1). Its site has been identified with the hill called Tell esSafieh, the Alba Specula of the Middle Ages, which rises 695 feet above the plain on its east edge. It is noticed on monuments about B.C. 1500. (See METHEGAMMAH.)

Gath-hepher - wine-press of the well, a town of Lower Galilee, about 5 miles from Nazareth; the birthplace of Jonah (2 Kings 14:25); the same as Gittah-hepher (Josh. 19:13). It has been identified with the modern el-Meshed, a village on the top of a rocky hill. Here the supposed tomb of Jonah, Neby Yunas, is still pointed out.

Gath-rimmon - press of the pomegranate. (1.) A Levitical city in the tribe of Dan (Josh. 19:45; 21:24; 1 Chr. 6:69).

(2.) Another city of the same name in Manasseh, west of the Jordan (Josh. 21:25), called also Bileam (1 Chr. 6:70).

Gaulanitis - a name derived from "Golan" (q.v.), one of the cities of refuge in the territory of Manasseh (Josh. 20:8; 21:27; Deut. 4:43). This was one of the provinces ruled by Herod Antipas. It lay to the east of the Lake of Galilee, and included among its towns Bethsaida-Julias (Mark 8:22) and Seleucia.

Gaza - called also Azzah, which is its Hebrew name (Deut. 2:23; 1 Kings 4:24; Jer. 25:20), strong, a city on the Mediterranean shore, remarkable for its early importance as the chief centre of a great commercial traffic with Egypt. It is one of the oldest cities of the world (Gen. 10:19; Josh. 15:47). Its earliest inhabitants were the Avims, who were conquered and displaced by the Caphtorims (Deut. 2:23; Josh. 13:2, 3), a Philistine tribe. In the division of the land it fell to the lot of Judah (Josh. 15:47; Judg. 1:18). It was the southernmost of the five great Philistine cities which gave each a golden emerod as a trespass-offering unto the Lord (1 Sam. 6:17). Its gates were carried away by Samson (Judg. 16:1-3). Here he was afterwards a prisoner, and "did grind in the prison house." Here he also pulled down the temple of Dagon, and slew "all the lords of the Philistines," himself also perishing in the ruin (Judg. 16:21-30). The prophets denounce the judgments of God against it (Jer. 25:20; 47:5; Amos 1:6, 7; Zeph. 2:4). It is referred to in Acts 8:26. Philip is here told to take the road from Jerusalem to Gaza (about 6 miles south-west of Jerusalem), "which is desert", i.e., the "desert road," probably by Hebron, through the desert hills of Southern Judea. (See SAMSON.)

It is noticed on monuments as early as B.C. 1600. Its small port is now called el-Mineh.

Geba - the hill, (2 Sam. 5:25 [1 Chr. 14:16, "Gibeon"]; 2 Kings 23:8; Neh. 11:31), a Levitical city of Benjamin (1 Kings 15:22; 1 Sam. 13:16; 14:5, wrongly "Gibeah" in the A.V.), on the north border of Judah near Gibeah (Isa. 10:29; Josh. 18:24, 28). "From Geba to Beersheba" expressed the whole extent of the kingdom of Judah, just as "from Dan to Beersheba" described the whole length of Palestine (2 Kings 23:8). It has been identified with Gaba (Josh. 18:24; Ezra 2:26; Neh. 7:30), now Jeb'a, about 5 1/2 miles north of Jerusalem.

Gebal - a line (or natural boundary, as a mountain range). (1.) A tract in the land of Edom south of the Dead Sea (Ps. 83:7); now called Djebal.

(2.) A Phoenician city, not far from the sea coast, to the north of Beyrout (Ezek. 27:9); called by the Greeks Byblos. Now Jibeil. Mentioned in the Amarna tablets.

An important Phoenician text, referring to the temple of Baalath, on a monument of Yehu-melek, its king (probably B.C. 600), has been discovered.

Gebalites - (1 Kings 5:18 R.V., in A.V. incorrectly rendered, after the Targum, "stone-squarers," but marg. "Giblites"), the inhabitants of Gebal (2).

Geber - a valiant man, (1 Kings 4:19), one of Solomon's purveyors, having jurisdiction over a part of Gilead, comprising all the kingdom of Sihon and part of the kingdom of Og (Deut. 2; 31).

Gebim - cisterns, (rendered "pits," Jer. 14:3; "locusts," Isa. 33:4), a small place north of Jerusalem, whose inhabitants fled at the approach of the Assyrian army (Isa. 10:31). It is probably the modern el-Isawiyeh.

Gedaliah - made great by Jehovah. (1.) the son of Jeduthum (1 Chr. 25:3, 9). (2.) The grandfather of the prophet Zephaniah, and the father of Cushi (Zeph. 1:1). (3.) One of the Jewish nobles who conspired against Jeremiah (Jer. 38:1). (4.) The son of Ahikam, and grandson of Shaphan, secretary of king Josiah (Jer. 26:24). After the destruction of Jerusalem (see ZEDEKIAH ¯T0003894), Nebuchadnezzar left him to govern the country as tributary to him (2 Kings 25:22; Jer. 40:5; 52:16). Ishmael, however, at the head of a party of the royal family, "Jewish irreconcilables", rose against him, and slew him and "all the Jews that were with him" (Jer. 41:2, 3) at Mizpah about three months after the destruction of Jerusalem. He and his band also plundered the town of Mizpah, and carried off many captives. He was, however, overtaken by Johanan and routed. He fled with such of his followers as escaped to the Ammonites (41:15). The little remnant of the Jews now fled to Egypt.

Geder - a walled place, (Josh. 12:13), perhaps the same as Gederah or Gedor (15:58).

Gederah - the fortress; a fortified place, a town in the plain (shephelah) of Judah (Josh. 15:36). This is a very common Canaanite and Phoenician name. It is the feminine form of Geder (12:13); the plural form is Gederoth (15:41). This place has by some been identified with Jedireh, a ruin 9 miles from Lydda, toward Eleutheropolis, and 4 miles north of Sur'ah (Zorah), in the valley of Elah.

Gederathite - an epithet applied to Josabad, one of David's warriors at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:4), a native of Gederah.

Gedor - a wall. (1.) A city in the mountains or hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:58), identified with Jedar, between Jerusalem and Hebron.

(2.) 1 Chr. 4:39, the Gederah of Josh. 15:36, or the well-known Gerar, as the LXX. read, where the patriarchs of old had sojourned and fed their flocks (Gen. 20:1, 14, 15; 26:1, 6, 14).

(3.) A town apparently in Benjamin (1 Chr. 12:7), the same probably as Geder (Josh. 12:13).

Gehazi - valley of vision, Elisha's trusted servant (2 Kings 4:31; 5:25; 8:4, 5). He appears in connection with the history of the Shunammite (2 Kings 4:14, 31) and of Naaman the Syrian. On this latter occasion he was guilty of duplicity and dishonesty of conduct, causing Elisha to denounce his crime with righteous sternness, and pass on him the terrible doom that the leprosy of Naaman would cleave to him and his for ever (5:20-27).

He afterwards appeared before king Joram, to whom he recounted the great deeds of his master (2 Kings 8:1-6).

Gehenna - (originally Ge bene Hinnom; i.e., "the valley of the sons of Hinnom"), a deep, narrow glen to the south of Jerusalem, where the idolatrous Jews offered their children in sacrifice to Molech (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31; 19:2-6). This valley afterwards became the common receptacle for all the refuse of the city. Here the dead bodies of animals and of criminals, and all kinds of filth, were cast and consumed by fire kept always burning. It thus in process of time became the image of the place of everlasting destruction. In this sense it is used by our Lord in Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5. In these passages, and also in James 3:6, the word is uniformly rendered "hell," the Revised Version placing "Gehenna" in the margin. (See HELL ¯T0001731; HINNOM.)

Geliloth - circles; regions, a place in the border of Benjamin (Josh. 18:17); called Gilgal in 15:7.

Gemariah - Jehovah has made perfect. (1.) The son of Shaphan, and one of the Levites of the temple in the time of Jehoiakim (Jer. 36:10; 2 Kings 22:12). Baruch read aloud to the people from Gemariah's chamber, and again in the hearing of Gemariah and other scribes, the prophecies of Jeremiah (Jer. 36:11-20), which filled him with terror. He joined with others in entreating the king not to destroy the roll of the prophecies which Baruch had read (21-25).

(2.) The son of Hilkiah, who accompanied Shaphan with the tribute-money from Zedekiah to Nebuchadnezzar, and was the bearer at the same time of a letter from Jeremiah to the Jewish captives at Babylon (Jer. 29:3, 4).

Generation - Gen. 2:4, "These are the generations," means the "history." 5:1, "The book of the generations," means a family register, or history of Adam. 37:2, "The generations of Jacob" = the history of Jacob and his descendants. 7:1, "In this generation" = in this age. Ps. 49:19, "The generation of his fathers" = the dwelling of his fathers, i.e., the grave. Ps. 73:15, "The generation of thy children" = the contemporary race. Isa. 53:8, "Who shall declare his generation?" = His manner of life who shall declare? or rather = His race, posterity, shall be so numerous that no one shall be able to declare it.

In Matt. 1:17, the word means a succession or series of persons from the same stock. Matt. 3:7, "Generation of vipers" = brood of vipers. 24:34, "This generation" = the persons then living contemporary with Christ. 1 Pet. 2:9, "A chosen generation" = a chosen people.

The Hebrews seem to have reckoned time by the generation. In the time of Abraham a generation was an hundred years, thus: Gen. 15:16, "In the fourth generation" = in four hundred years (comp. verse 13 and Ex. 12:40). In Deut. 1:35 and 2:14 a generation is a period of thirty-eight years.

Genesis - The five books of Moses were collectively called the Pentateuch, a word of Greek origin meaning "the five-fold book." The Jews called them the Torah, i.e., "the law." It is probable that the division of the Torah into five books proceeded from the Greek translators of the Old Testament. The names by which these several books are generally known are Greek.

The first book of the Pentateuch (q.v.) is called by the Jews Bereshith, i.e., "in the beginning", because this is the first word of the book. It is generally known among Christians by the name of Genesis, i.e., "creation" or "generation," being the name given to it in the LXX. as designating its character, because it gives an account of the origin of all things. It contains, according to the usual computation, the history of about two thousand three hundred and sixty-nine years.

Genesis is divided into two principal parts. The first part (1-11) gives a general history of mankind down to the time of the Dispersion. The second part presents the early history of Israel down to the death and burial of Joseph (12-50).

There are five principal persons brought in succession under our notice in this book, and around these persons the history of the successive periods is grouped, viz., Adam (1-3), Noah (4-9), Abraham (10-25:18), Isaac (25:19-35:29), and Jacob (36-50).

In this book we have several prophecies concerning Christ (3:15; 12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14; 49:10). The author of this book was Moses. Under divine guidance he may indeed have been led to make use of materials already existing in primeval documents, or even of traditions in a trustworthy form that had come down to his time, purifying them from all that was unworthy; but the hand of Moses is clearly seen throughout in its composition.

Gennesaret - a garden of riches. (1.) A town of Naphtali, called Chinnereth (Josh. 19:35), sometimes in the plural form Chinneroth (11:2). In later times the name was gradually changed to Genezar and Gennesaret (Luke 5:1). This city stood on the western shore of the lake to which it gave its name. No trace of it remains. The plain of Gennesaret has been called, from its fertility and beauty, "the Paradise of Galilee." It is now called el-Ghuweir.

(2.) The Lake of Gennesaret, the Grecized form of CHINNERETH (q.v.). (See GALILEE, SEA OF.)

Gentiles - (Heb., usually in plural, goyim), meaning in general all nations except the Jews. In course of time, as the Jews began more and more to pride themselves on their peculiar privileges, it acquired unpleasant associations, and was used as a term of contempt.

In the New Testament the Greek word Hellenes, meaning literally Greek (as in Acts 16:1, 3; 18:17; Rom. 1:14), generally denotes any non-Jewish nation.

Genubath - theft, the son of Hadad, of the Edomitish royal family. He was brought up in Pharaoh's household. His mother was a sister of Tahpenes, the king of Egypt's wife, mentioned in 1 Kings 11:20.

Gera - grain. (1.) The son of Bela and grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:3, 5,7).

(2.) The father of Ehud the judge (Judg. 3:15).

(3.) The father of Shimei, who so grossly abused David (2 Sam. 16:5; 19:16, 18).

Gerah - a bean, probably of the carob tree, the smallest weight, and also the smallest piece of money, among the Hebrews, equal to the twentieth part of a shekel (Ex. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). This word came into use in the same way as our word "grain," from a grain of wheat.

Gerar - a region; lodging-place, a very ancient town and district in the south border of Palestine, which was ruled over by a king named Abimelech (Gen. 10:19; 20:1, 2). Abraham sojourned here, and perhaps Isaac was born in this place. Both of these patriarchs were guilty of the sin of here denying their wives, and both of them entered into a treaty with the king before they departed to Beersheba (21:23-34; 26). It seems to have been a rich pastoral country (2 Chr. 14:12-18). Isaac here reaped an hundred-fold, and was blessed of God (Gen. 26:12). The "valley of Gerar" (Gen. 26:17) was probably the modern Wady el-Jerdr.

Gergesa - =Gerasa, identified with the modern Khersa, "over against Galilee," close to the lake. This was probably the scene of the miracle, Mark 5:1-20, etc. "From the base of the great plateau of Bashan, 2,000 feet or more overhead, the ground slopes down steeply, in places precipitously, to the shore. And at the foot of the declivity a bold spur runs out to the water's edge. By it the frantic swine would rush on headlong into the lake and perish." Porter's Through Samaria. (See GADARA.)

Gerizim - a mountain of Samaria, about 3,000 feet above the Mediterranean. It was on the left of the valley containing the ancient town of Shechem (q.v.), on the way to Jerusalem. It stood over against Mount Ebal, the summits of these mountains being distant from each other about 2 miles (Deut. 27; Josh. 8:30-35). On the slopes of this mountain the tribes descended from the handmaids of Leah and Rachel, together with the tribe of Reuben, were gathered together, and gave the responses to the blessing pronounced as the reward of obedience, when Joshua in the valley below read the whole law in the hearing of all the people; as those gathered on Ebal responded with a loud Amen to the rehearsal of the curses pronounced on the disobedient. It was probably at this time that the coffin containing the embalmed body of Joseph was laid in the "parcel of ground which Jacob bought of the sons of Hamor" (Gen. 33:19; 50:25).

Josephus relates (Ant. 11:8, 2-4) that Sanballat built a temple for the Samaritans on this mountain, and instituted a priesthood, as rivals to those of the Jews at Jerusalem. This temple was destroyed after it had stood two hundred years. It was afterwards rebuilt by Herod the Great. There is a Samaritan tradition that it was the scene of the incident recorded in Gen. 22. There are many ruins on this mountain, some of which are evidently of Christian buildings. To this mountain the woman of Sychar referred in John 4:20. For centuries Gerizim was the centre of political outbreaks. The Samaritans (q.v.), a small but united body, still linger here, and keep up their ancient ceremonial worship.

Gershom - expulsion. (1.) The eldest son of Levi (1 Chr. 6:16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71; 15:7)=GERSHON (q.v.).

(2.) The elder of the two sons of Moses born to him in Midian (Ex. 2:22; 18:3). On his way to Egypt with his family, in obedience to the command of the Lord, Moses was attacked by a sudden and dangerous illness (4:24-26), which Zipporah his wife believed to have been sent because he had neglected to circumcise his son. She accordingly took a "sharp stone" and circumcised her son Gershom, saying, "Surely a bloody husband art thou to me", i.e., by the blood of her child she had, as it were, purchased her husband, had won him back again.

(3.) A descendant of Phinehas who returned with Ezra from Babylon (Ezra 8:2).

(4.) The son of Manasseh (Judg. 18:30), in R.V. "of Moses."

Gershon - =Ger'shom expulsion, the eldest of Levi's three sons (Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16).

In the wilderness the sons of Gershon had charge of the fabrics of the tabernacle when it was moved from place to place, the curtains, veils, tent-hangings (Num. 3: 21-26). Thirteen Levitical cities fell to the lot of the Gershonites (Josh. 21:27-33).

Geshem - or Gashmu, firmness, probably chief of the Arabs south of Palestine, one of the enemies of the Jews after the return from Babylon (Neh. 2:19; 6:1, 2). He united with Sanballat and Tobiah in opposing the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem.

Geshur - bridge, the name of a district or principality of Syria near Gilead, between Mount Hermon and the Lake of Tiberias (2 Sam. 15:8; 1 Chr. 2:23). The Geshurites probably inhabited the rocky fastness of Argob, the modern Lejah, in the north-east corner of Bashan. In the time of David it was ruled by Talmai, whose daughter he married, and who was the mother of Absalom, who fled to Geshur after the murder of Amnon (2 Sam. 13:37).

Geshurites - (1.) The inhabitants of Geshur. They maintained friendly relations with the Israelites on the east of Jordan (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13).

(2.) Another aboriginal people of Palestine who inhabited the south-west border of the land. Geshuri in Josh. 13:2 should be "the Geshurite," not the Geshurites mentioned in ver. 11, 13, but the tribe mentioned in 1 Sam. 27:8.

Gethsemane - oil-press, the name of an olive-yard at the foot of the Mount of Olives, to which Jesus was wont to retire (Luke 22:39) with his disciples, and which is specially memorable as being the scene of his agony (Mark 14:32; John 18:1; Luke 22:44). The plot of ground pointed out as Gethsemane is now surrounded by a wall, and is laid out as a modern European flower-garden. It contains eight venerable olive-trees, the age of which cannot, however, be determined. The exact site of Gethsemane is still in question. Dr. Thomson (The Land and the Book) says: "When I first came to Jerusalem, and for many years afterward, this plot of ground was open to all whenever they chose to come and meditate beneath its very old olivetrees. The Latins, however, have within the last few years succeeded in gaining sole possession, and have built a high wall around it...The Greeks have invented another site a little to the north of it...My own impression is that both are wrong. The position is too near the city, and so close to what must have always been the great thoroughfare eastward, that our Lord would scarcely have selected it for retirement on that dangerous and dismal night...I am inclined to place the garden in the secluded vale several hundred yards to the north-east of the present Gethsemane."

Gezer - a precipice, an ancient royal Canaanitish city (Josh. 10:33; 12:12). It was allotted with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (21:21; 1 Chr. 6:67). It stood between the lower Beth-horon and the sea (Josh. 16:3; 1 Kings 9:17). It was the last point to which David pursued the Philistines (2 Sam. 5:25; 1 Chr. 14:16) after the battle of Baal-perazim. The Canaanites retained possession of it till the time of Solomon, when the king of Egypt took it and gave it to Solomon as a part of the dowry of the Egyptian princess whom he married (1 Kings 9:15-17). It is identified with Tell el-Jezer, about 10 miles south-west of Beth-horon. It is mentioned in the Amarna tablets.

Ghost - an old Saxon word equivalent to soul or spirit. It is the translation of the Hebrew nephesh_ and the Greek _pneuma, both meaning "breath," "life," "spirit," the "living principle" (Job 11:20; Jer. 15:9; Matt. 27:50; John 19:30). The expression "to give up the ghost" means to die (Lam. 1:19; Gen. 25:17; 35:29; 49:33; Job 3:11). (See HOLY GHOST.)

Giants - (1.) Heb. nephilim, meaning "violent" or "causing to fall" (Gen. 6:4). These were the violent tyrants of those days, those who fell upon others. The word may also be derived from a root signifying "wonder," and hence "monsters" or "prodigies." In Num. 13:33 this name is given to a Canaanitish tribe, a race of large stature, "the sons of Anak." The Revised Version, in these passages, simply transliterates the original, and reads "Nephilim."

(2.) Heb. rephaim, a race of giants (Deut. 3:11) who lived on the east of Jordan, from whom Og was descended. They were probably the original inhabitants of the land before the immigration of the Canaanites. They were conquered by Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:5), and their territories were promised as a possession to Abraham (15:20). The Anakim, Zuzim, and Emim were branches of this stock.

In Job 26:5 (R.V., "they that are deceased;" marg., "the shades," the "Rephaim") and Isa. 14:9 this Hebrew word is rendered (A.V.) "dead." It means here "the shades," the departed spirits in Sheol. In Sam. 21:16, 18, 20, 33, "the giant" is (A.V.) the rendering of the singular form ha raphah, which may possibly be the name of the father of the four giants referred to here, or of the founder of the Rephaim. The Vulgate here reads "Arapha," whence Milton (in Samson Agonistes) has borrowed the name "Harapha." (See also 1 Chron. 20:5, 6, 8; Deut. 2:11, 20; 3:13; Josh. 15:8, etc., where the word is similarly rendered "giant.") It is rendered "dead" in (A.V.) Ps. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 9:18; 21:16: in all these places the Revised Version marg. has "the shades." (See also Isa. 26:14.)

(3.) Heb. 'Anakim (Deut. 2:10, 11, 21; Josh. 11:21, 22; 14:12, 15; called "sons of Anak," Num. 13:33; "children of Anak," 13:22; Josh. 15:14), a nomad race of giants descended from Arba (Josh. 14:15), the father of Anak, that dwelt in the south of Palestine near Hebron (Gen. 23:2; Josh. 15:13). They were a Cushite tribe of the same race as the Philistines and the Egyptian shepherd kings. David on several occasions encountered them (2 Sam. 21:15-22). From this race sprung Goliath (1 Sam. 17:4).

(4.) Heb. 'emin, a warlike tribe of the ancient Canaanites. They were "great, and many, and tall, as the Anakims" (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:10, 11).

(5.) Heb. Zamzummim (q.v.), Deut. 2:20 so called by the Amorites.

(6.) Heb. gibbor (Job 16:14), a mighty one, i.e., a champion or hero. In its plural form (gibborim) it is rendered "mighty men" (2 Sam. 23:8-39; 1 Kings 1:8; 1 Chr. 11:9-47; 29:24.) The band of six hundred whom David gathered around him when he was a fugitive were so designated. They were divided into three divisions of two hundred each, and thirty divisions of twenty each. The captians of the thirty divisions were called "the thirty," the captains of the two hundred "the three," and the captain over the whole was called "chief among the captains" (2 Sam. 23:8). The sons born of the marriages mentioned in Gen. 6:4 are also called by this Hebrew name.

Gibbethon - a height, a city of the Philistines in the territory of Dan, given to the Kohathites (Josh. 19:44; 21:23). Nadab the king of Israel, while besieging it, was slain under its walls by Baasha, one of his own officers (1 Kings 15:27). It was in the possession of the Philistines after the secession of the ten tribes (2 Chr. 11:13, 14).

Gibeah - a hill or hill-town, "of Benjamin" (1 Sam. 13:15), better known as "Gibeah of Saul" (11:4; Isa. 10:29). It was here that the terrible outrage was committed on the Levite's concubine which led to the almost utter extirpation of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 19; 20), only six hundred men surviving after a succession of disastrous battles. This was the birthplace of Saul, and continued to be his residence after he became king (1 Sam. 10:26; 11:4; 15:34). It was reckoned among the ancient sanctuaries of Palestine (10:26; 15:34; 23:19; 26:1; 2 Sam. 21:6-10), and hence it is called "Gibeah of God" (1 Sam. 10:5, R.V. marg.). It has been identified with the modern Tell el-Ful (i.e., "hill of the bean"), about 3 miles north of Jerusalem.

Gibeah-haaraloth - (Josh. 5:3, marg.), hill of the foreskins, a place at Gilgal where those who had been born in the wilderness were circumcised. All the others, i.e., those who were under twenty years old at the time of the sentence at Kadesh, had already been circumcised.

Gibeah of Judah - (Josh. 15:57), a city in the mountains of Judah, the modern Jeba, on a hill in the Wady Musurr, about 7 1/2 miles west-south-west of Bethlehem.

Gibeah of Phinehas - (Josh. 15:57, R.V. marg.), a city on Mount Ephraim which had been given to Phinehas (24:33 "hill," A.V.; R.V. marg. and Heb., "Gibeah."). Here Eleazar the son of Aaron was buried. It has been identified with the modern Khurbet Jibia, 5 miles north of Guphna towards Shechem.

Gibeon - hill-city, "one of the royal cities, greater than Ai, and all the men thereof were mighty" (Josh. 10:2). Its inhabitants were Hivites (11:19). It lay within the territory of Benjamin, and became a priest-city (18:25; 21:17). Here the tabernacle was set up after the destruction of Nob, and here it remained many years till the temple was built by Solomon. It is represented by the modern el-Jib, to the south-west of Ai, and about 5 1/2 miles north-north-west of Jerusalem.

A deputation of the Gibeonites, with their allies from three other cities (Josh. 9;17), visited the camp at Gilgal, and by false representations induced Joshua to enter into a league with them, although the Israelites had been specially warned against any league with the inhabitants of Canaan (Ex. 23:32; 34:12; Num. 33:55; Deut. 7:2). The deception practised on Joshua was detected three days later; but the oath rashly sworn "by Jehovah God of Israel" was kept, and the lives of the Gibeonites were spared. They were, however, made "bondmen" to the sanctuary (Josh. 9:23).

The most remarkable incident connected with this city was the victory Joshua gained over the kings of Palestine (Josh. 10:16-27). The battle here fought has been regarded as "one of the most important in the history of the world." The kings of southern Canaan entered into a confederacy against Gibeon (because it had entered into a league with Joshua) under the leadership of Adoni-zedec, king of Jerusalem, and marched upon Gibeon with the view of taking possession of it. The Gibeonites entreated Joshua to come to their aid with the utmost speed. His army came suddenly upon that of the Amorite kings as it lay encamped before the city. It was completely routed, and only broken remnants of their great host found refuge in the fenced cities. The five confederate kings who led the army were taken prisoners, and put to death at Makkedah (q.v.). This eventful battle of Beth-horon sealed the fate of all the cities of Southern Palestine. Among the Amarna tablets is a letter from Adoni-zedec (q.v.) to the king of Egypt, written probably at Makkedah after the defeat, showing that the kings contemplated flight into Egypt.

This place is again brought into notice as the scene of a battle between the army of Ish-bosheth under Abner and that of David led by Joab. At the suggestion of Abner, to spare the effusion of blood twelve men on either side were chosen to decide the battle. The issue was unexpected; for each of the men slew his fellow, and thus they all perished. The two armies then engaged in battle, in which Abner and his host were routed and put to flight (2 Sam. 2:12-17). This battle led to a virtual truce between Judah and Israel, Judah, under David, increasing in power; and Israel, under Ish-bosheth, continually losing ground.

Soon after the death of Absalom and David's restoration to his throne his kingdom was visited by a grievous famine, which was found to be a punishment for Saul's violation (2 Sam. 21:2, 5) of the covenant with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9:3-27). The Gibeonites demanded blood for the wrong that had been done to them, and accordingly David gave up to them the two sons of Rizpah (q.v.) and the five sons of Michal, and these the Gibeonites took and hanged or crucified "in the hill before the Lord" (2 Sam. 21:9); and there the bodies hung for six months (21:10), and all the while Rizpah watched over the blackening corpses and "suffered neither the birds of the air to rest on them by day, nor the beasts of the field by night." David afterwards removed the bones of Saul and Jonathan at Jabeshgilead (21:12, 13).

Here, "at the great stone," Amasa was put to death by Joab (2 Sam. 20:5-10). To the altar of burnt-offering which was at Gibeon, Joab (1 Kings 2:28-34), who had taken the side of Adonijah, fled for sanctuary in the beginning of Solomon's reign, and was there also slain by the hand of Benaiah.

Soon after he came to the throne, Solomon paid a visit of state to Gibeon, there to offer sacrifices (1 Kings 3:4; 2 Chr. 1:3). On this occasion the Lord appeared to him in a memorable dream, recorded in 1 Kings 3:5-15; 2 Chr. 1:7-12. When the temple was built "all the men of Israel assembled themselves" to king Solomon, and brought up from Gibeon the tabernacle and "all the holy vessels that were in the tabernacle" to Jerusalem, where they remained till they were carried away by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24:13).

Gideon - called also Jerubbaal (Judg. 6:29, 32), was the first of the judges whose history is circumstantially narrated (Judg. 6-8). His calling is the commencement of the second period in the history of the judges. After the victory gained by Deborah and Barak over Jabin, Israel once more sank into idolatry, and the Midianites (q.v.) and Amalekites, with other "children of the east," crossed the Jordan each year for seven successive years for the purpose of plundering and desolating the land. Gideon received a direct call from God to undertake the task of delivering the land from these warlike invaders. He was of the family of Abiezer (Josh. 17:2; 1 Chr. 7:18), and of the little township of Ophrah (Judg. 6:11). First, with ten of his servants, he overthrew the altars of Baal and cut down the asherah which was upon it, and then blew the trumpet of alarm, and the people flocked to his standard on the crest of Mount Gilboa to the number of twenty-two thousand men. These were, however, reduced to only three hundred. These, strangely armed with torches and pitchers and trumpets, rushed in from three different points on the camp of Midian at midnight, in the valley to the north of Moreh, with the terrible war-cry, "For the Lord and for Gideon" (Judg. 7:18, R.V.). Terror-stricken, the Midianites were put into dire confusion, and in the darkness slew one another, so that only fifteen thousand out of the great army of one hundred and twenty thousand escaped alive. The memory of this great deliverance impressed itself deeply on the mind of the nation (1 Sam. 12:11; Ps. 83:11; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Heb. 11:32). The land had now rest for forty years. Gideon died in a good old age, and was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers. Soon after his death a change came over the people. They again forgot Jehovah, and turned to the worship of Baalim, "neither shewed they kindness to the house of Jerubbaal" (Judg. 8:35). Gideon left behind him seventy sons, a feeble, sadly degenerated race, with one exception, that of Abimelech, who seems to have had much of the courage and energy of his father, yet of restless and unscrupulous ambition. He gathered around him a band who slaughtered all Gideon's sons, except Jotham, upon one stone. (See OPHRAH.)

Gier eagle - Heb. raham = "parental affection," Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17; R.V., "vulture"), a species of vulture living entirely on carrion. "It is about the size of a raven; has an almost triangular, bald, and wrinkled head, a strong pointed beak, black at the tip, large eyes and ears, the latter entirely on the outside, and long feet." It is common in Egypt, where it is popularly called "Pharaoh's chicken" (the Neophron percnopterus), and is found in Palestine only during summer. Tristram thinks that the Hebrew name, which is derived from a root meaning "to love," is given to it from the fact that the male and female bird never part company.

Gift - (1.) An gratuity (Prov. 19:6) to secure favour (18:16; 21:14), a thank-offering (Num. 18:11), or a dowry (Gen. 34:12).

(2.) An oblation or proppitatory gift (2Sa 8:2,6; 1Ch 18:2,6; 2Ch 26:8; Ps. 45:12; 72:10).

(3.) A bribe to a judge to obtain a favourable verdict (Ex. 23:8; Deut. 16:19).

(4.) Simply a thing given (Matt. 7:11; Luke 11:13; Eph. 4:8); sacrifical (Matt. 5:23, 24; 8:4); eleemosynary (Luke 21:1); a gratuity (John 4:10; Acts 8:20). In Acts 2:38 the generic word dorea is rendered "gift." It differs from the charisma (1 Cor. 12:4) as denoting not miraculous powers but the working of a new spirit in men, and that spirit from God.

The giving of presents entered largely into the affairs of common life in the East. The nature of the presents was as various as were the occasions: food (1 Sam. 9:7; 16:20), sheep and cattle (Gen. 32:13-15), gold (2 Sam. 18:11), jewels (Gen. 24:53), furniture, and vessels for eating and drinking (2 Sam. 17:28); delicacies, as spices, honey, etc. (1 Kings 10:25; 2 Kings 5: 22). The mode of presentation was with as much parade as possible: the presents were conveyed by the hands of servants (Judg. 3:18), or still better, on the backs of beasts of burden (2 Kings 8:9). The refusal of a present was regarded as a high indignity; and this constituted the aggravated insult noticed in Matt. 22:11, the marriage robe having been offered and refused.

Gifts, spiritual - (Gr. charismata), gifts supernaturally bestowed on the early Christians, each having his own proper gift or gifts for the edification of the body of Christ. These were the result of the extraordinary operation of the Spirit, as on the day of Pentecost. They were the gifts of speaking with tongues, casting out devils, healing, etc. (Mark 16:17, 18), usually communicated by the medium of the laying on of the hands of the apostles (Acts 8:17; 19:6; 1 Tim. 4:14). These charismata were enjoyed only for a time. They could not continue always in the Church. They were suited to its infancy and to the necessities of those times.

Gihon - a stream. (1.) One of the four rivers of Eden (Gen. 2:13). It has been identified with the Nile. Others regard it as the Oxus, or the Araxes, or the Ganges. But as, according to the sacred narrative, all these rivers of Eden took their origin from the head-waters of the Euphrates and the Trigris, it is probable that the Gihon is the ancient Araxes, which, under the modern name of the Arras, discharges itself into the Caspian Sea. It was the Asiatic and not the African "Cush" which the Gihon compassed (Gen. 10:7-10). (See EDEN.)

(2.) The only natural spring of water in or near Jerusalem is the "Fountain of the Virgin" (q.v.), which rises outside the city walls on the west bank of the Kidron valley. On the occasion of the approach of the Assyrian army under Sennacherib, Hezekiah, in order to prevent the besiegers from finding water, "stopped the upper water course of Gihon, and brought it straight down to the west side of the city of David" (2 Chr. 32:30; 33:14). This "fountain" or spring is therefore to be regarded as the "upper water course of Gihon." From this "fountain" a tunnel cut through the ridge which forms the south part of the temple hill conveys the water to the Pool of Siloam, which lies on the opposite side of this ridge at the head of the Tyropoeon ("cheesemakers'") valley, or valley of the son of Hinnom, now filled up by rubbish. The length of this tunnel is about 1,750 feet. In 1880 an inscription was accidentally discovered on the wall of the tunnel about nineteen feet from where it opens into the Pool of Siloam. This inscription was executed in all probability by Hezekiah's workmen. It briefly narrates the history of the excavation. It may, however, be possible that this tunnel was executed in the time of Solomon. If the "waters of Shiloah that go softly" (Isa. 8:6) refers to the gentle stream that still flows through the tunnel into the Pool of Siloam, then this excavation must have existed before the time of Hezekiah.

In the upper part of the Tyropoeoan valley there are two pools still existing, the first, called Birket el-Mamilla, to the west of the Jaffa gate; the second, to the south of the first, called Birket es-Sultan. It is the opinion of some that the former was the "upper" and the latter the "lower" Pool of Gihon (2 Kings 18:17; Isa. 7:3; 36:2; 22:9). (See CONDUIT ¯T0000877; SILOAM.)

Gilboa - boiling spring, a mountain range, now Jebel Fukua', memorable as the scene of Saul's disastrous defeat by the Philistines. Here also his three sons were slain, and he himself died by his own hand (1 Sam. 28:4; 31:1-8; 2 Sam. 1:6-21; 21:12; 1 Chr. 10:1, 8). It was a low barren range of mountains bounding the valley of Esdraelon (Jezreel) on the east, between it and the Jordan valley. When the tidings of this defeat were conveyed to David, he gave utterance to those pathetic words in the "Song of the Bow" (2 Sam. 1:19-27).

Gilead - hill of testimony, (Gen. 31:21), a mountainous region east of Jordan. From its mountainous character it is called "the mount of Gilead" (Gen. 31:25). It is called also "the land of Gilead" (Num. 32:1), and sometimes simply "Gilead" (Ps. 60:7; Gen. 37:25). It comprised the possessions of the tribes of Gad and Reuben and the south part of Manasseh (Deut. 3:13; Num. 32:40). It was bounded on the north by Bashan, and on the south by Moab and Ammon (Gen. 31:21; Deut. 3:12-17). "Half Gilead" was possessed by Sihon, and the other half, separated from it by the river Jabbok, by Og, king of Bashan. The deep ravine of the river Hieromax (the modern Sheriat el-Mandhur) separated Bashan from Gilead, which was about 60 miles in length and 20 in breadth, extending from near the south end of the Lake of Gennesaret to the north end of the Dead Sea. Abarim, Pisgah, Nebo, and Peor are its mountains mentioned in Scripture.

Gilead, Balm of - The region of Gilead abounded in spices and aromatic gums, which were exported to Egypt and Tyre (Gen. 37:25; Jer. 8:22; 46:11; Ezek. 27:17). The word "balm" is a contracted form of "balsam," a word derived from the Greek balsamon, which was adopted as the representative of the Hebrew words baal shemen, meaning "lord" or "chief of oils."

The Hebrew name of this balm was tsori. The tree yielding this medicinal oil was probably the Balsamodendron opobalsamum of botanists, and the Amyris opobalsamum of Linnaeus. It is an evergreen, rising to the height of about 14 feet. The oil or resin, exuding through an orifice made in its bark in very small quantities, is esteemed of great value for its supposed medicinal qualities. (See BALM.) It may be noted that Coverdale's version reads in Jer. 8:22, "There is no triacle in Galaad." The word "triacle" = "treacle" is used in the sense of ointment.

Gilgal - rolling. (1.) From the solemn transaction of the reading of the law in the valley of Shechem between Ebal and Gerizim the Israelites moved forward to Gilgal, and there made a permanent camp (Josh. 9:6; 10:6). It was "beside the oaks of Moreh," near which Abraham erected his first altar (Gen. 12:6, 7). This was one of the three towns to which Samuel resorted for the administration of justice (1 Sam. 7:16), and here also he offered sacrifices when the ark was no longer in the tabernacle at Shiloh (1 Sam. 10:8; 13:7-9). To this place, as to a central sanctuary, all Israel gathered to renew their allegiance to Saul (11:14). At a later period it became the scene of idolatrous worship (Hos. 4:15; 9:15). It has been identified with the ruins of Jiljilieh, about 5 miles south-west of Shiloh and about the same distance from Bethel.

(2.) The place in "the plains of Jericho," "in the east border of Jericho," where the Israelites first encamped after crossing the Jordan (Josh. 4:19, 20). Here they kept their first Passover in the land of Canaan (5:10) and renewed the rite of circumcision, and so "rolled away the reproach" of their Egyptian slavery. Here the twelve memorial stones, taken from the bed of the Jordan, were set up; and here also the tabernacle remained till it was removed to Shiloh (18:1). It has been identified with Tell Jiljulieh, about 5 miles from Jordan.

(3.) A place, probably in the hill country of Ephraim, where there was a school of the prophets (2 Kings 4:38), and whence Elijah and Elisha, who resided here, "went down" to Bethel (2:1,2). It is mentioned also in Deut. 11:30. It is now known as Jiljilia, a place 8 miles north of Bethel.

Giloh - exile, a city in the south-west part of the hill-country of Judah (Josh. 15:51). It was the native place or residence of the traitor Ahithophel "the Gilonite" (Josh. 15:51; 2 Sam. 15:12), and where he committed suicide (17:23). It has been identified with Kurbet Jala, about 7 miles north of Hebron.

Gimzo - a place fertile in sycamores, a city in the plain of Judah, the villages of which were seized by the Philistines (2 Chr. 28:18). It is now called Jimzu, about 3 miles south-east of Ludd, i.e., Lydda.

Gin - a trap. (1.) Ps. 140:5, 141:9, Amos 3:5, the Hebrew word used, mokesh, means a noose or "snare," as it is elsewhere rendered (Ps. 18:5; Prov. 13:14, etc.).

(2.) Job 18:9, Isa. 8:14, Heb. pah, a plate or thin layer; and hence a net, a snare, trap, especially of a fowler (Ps. 69: 22, "Let their table before them become a net;" Amos 3:5, "Doth a bird fall into a net [pah] upon the ground where there is no trap-stick [mokesh] for her? doth the net [pah] spring up from the ground and take nothing at all?", Gesenius.)

Girdle - (1.) Heb. hagor, a girdle of any kind worn by soldiers (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8; 1 Kings 2:5; 2 Kings 3:21) or women (Isa. 3:24).

(2.) Heb. 'ezor, something "bound," worn by prophets (2 Kings 1:8; Jer. 13:1), soldiers (Isa. 5:27; 2 Sam. 20:8; Ezek. 23:15), Kings (Job 12:18).

(3.) Heb. mezah, a "band," a girdle worn by men alone (Ps. 109:19; Isa. 22:21).

(4.) Heb. 'abnet, the girdle of sacerdotal and state officers (Ex. 28:4, 39, 40; 29:9; 39:29).

(5.) Heb. hesheb, the "curious girdle" (Ex. 28:8; R.V., "cunningly woven band") was attached to the ephod, and was made of the same material.

The common girdle was made of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4); a finer sort of linen (Jer. 13:1; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 10:5). Girdles of sackcloth were worn in token of sorrow (Isa. 3:24; 22:12). They were variously fastened to the wearer (Mark 1:6; Jer. 13:1; Ezek. 16:10).

The girdle was a symbol of strength and power (Job 12:18, 21; 30:11; Isa. 22:21; 45:5). "Righteousness and faithfulness" are the girdle of the Messiah (Isa. 11:5).

Girdles were used as purses or pockets (Matt. 10:9. A. V., "purses;" R.V., marg., "girdles." Also Mark 6:8).

Girgashite - dwelling in clayey soil, the descendants of the fifth son of Canaan (Gen. 10:16), one of the original tribes inhabiting the land of Canaan before the time of the Israelites (Gen. 15:21; Deut. 7:1). They were a branch of the great family of the Hivites. Of their geographical position nothing is certainly known. Probably they lived somewhere in the central part of Western Palestine.

Gittah-hepher - (Josh. 19:13). See GATH-HEPHER ¯T0001438.

Gittaim - two wine-presses, (2 Sam. 4:3; Neh. 11:33), a town probably in Benjamin to which the Beerothites fled.

Gittite - a native of the Philistine city of Gath (Josh. 13:3). Obed-edom, in whose house the ark was placed, is so designated (2 Sam. 6:10). Six hundred Gittites came with David from Gath into Israel (15:18, 19).

Gittith - a stringed instrument of music. This word is found in the titles of Ps. 8, 81, 84. In these places the LXX. render the word by "on the wine-fats." The Targum explains by "on the harp which David brought from Gath." It is the only stringed instrument named in the titles of the Psalms.

Gizonite - a name given to Hashem, an inhabitant of Gizoh, a place somewhere in the mountains of Judah (1 Chr. 11:34; 2 Sam. 23:32, 34).

Glass - was known to the Egyptians at a very early period of their national history, at least B.C. 1500. Various articles both useful and ornamental were made of it, as bottles, vases, etc. A glass bottle with the name of Sargon on it was found among the ruins of the north-west palace of Nimroud. The Hebrew word zekukith (Job 28:17), rendered in the Authorized Version "crystal," is rightly rendered in the Revised Version "glass." This is the only allusion to glass found in the Old Testament. It is referred to in the New Testament in Rev. 4:6; 15:2; 21:18, 21. In Job 37:18, the word rendered "looking-glass" is in the Revised Version properly rendered "mirror," formed, i.e., of some metal. (Comp. Ex. 38:8: "looking-glasses" are brazen mirrors, R.V.). A mirror is referred to also in James 1:23.

Glean - The corners of fields were not to be reaped, and the sheaf accidentally left behind was not to be fetched away, according to the law of Moses (Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:21). They were to be left for the poor to glean. Similar laws were given regarding vineyards and oliveyards. (Comp. Ruth 2:2.)

Glede - an Old English name for the common kite, mentioned only in Deut. 14:13 (Heb. ra'ah), the Milvus ater or black kite. The Hebrew word does not occur in the parallel passage in Leviticus (11:14, da'ah, rendered "vulture;" in R.V., "kite"). It was an unclean bird. The Hebrew name is from a root meaning "to see," "to look," thus designating a bird with a keen sight. The bird intended is probably the buzzard, of which there are three species found in Palestine. (See VULTURE.)

Glorify - (1.) To make glorious, or cause so to appear (John 12:28; 13:31, 32; 17:4,5).

(2.) Spoken of God to "shew forth his praise" (1 Cor. 6:20; 10:31).

Glory - (Heb. kabhod; Gr. doxa). (1.) Abundance, wealth, treasure, and hence honour (Ps. 49:12); glory (Gen. 31:1; Matt. 4:8; Rev. 21:24, 26).

(2.) Honour, dignity (1 Kings 3:13; Heb. 2:7 1 Pet. 1:24); of God (Ps. 19:1; 29:1); of the mind or heart (Gen. 49:6; Ps. 7:5; Acts 2:46).

(3.) Splendour, brightness, majesty (Gen. 45:13; Isa. 4:5; Acts 22:11; 2 Cor. 3:7); of Jehovah (Isa. 59:19; 60:1; 2 Thess. 1:9).

(4.) The glorious moral attributes, the infinite perfections of God (Isa. 40:5; Acts 7:2; Rom. 1:23; 9:23; Eph. 1:12). Jesus is the "brightness of the Father's glory" (Heb. 1:3; John 1:14; 2:11).

(5.) The bliss of heaven (Rom. 2:7, 10; 5:2; 8:18; Heb. 2:10; 1 Pet. 5:1, 10).

(6.) The phrase "Give glory to God" (Josh. 7:19; Jer. 13:16) is a Hebrew idiom meaning, "Confess your sins." The words of the Jews to the blind man, "Give God the praise" (John 9:24), are an adjuration to confess. They are equivalent to, "Confess that you are an impostor," "Give God the glory by speaking the truth;" for they denied that a miracle had been wrought.

Glutton - (Deut. 21:20), Heb. zolel, from a word meaning "to shake out," "to squander;" and hence one who is prodigal, who wastes his means by indulgence. In Prov. 23:21, the word means debauchees or wasters of their own body. In Prov. 28:7, the word (pl.) is rendered Authorized Version "riotous men;" Revised Version, "gluttonous." Matt. 11:19, Luke 7:34, Greek phagos, given to eating, gluttonous.

Gnash - Heb. harak, meaning "to grate the teeth", (Job 16:9; Ps. 112:10; Lam. 2:16), denotes rage or sorrow. (See also Acts 7:54; Mark 9:18.)

Gnat - only in Matt. 23:24, a small two-winged stinging fly of the genus Culex, which includes mosquitoes. Our Lord alludes here to the gnat in a proverbial expression probably in common use, "who strain out the gnat;" the words in the Authorized Version, "strain at a gnat," being a mere typographical error, which has been corrected in the Revised Version. The custom of filtering wine for this purpose was common among the Jews. It was founded on Lev. 11:23. It is supposed that the "lice," Ex. 8:16 (marg. R.V., "sand-flies"), were a species of gnat.

Goad - (Heb. malmad, only in Judg. 3: 31), an instrument used by ploughmen for guiding their oxen. Shamgar slew six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad. "The goad is a formidable weapon. It is sometimes ten feet long, and has a sharp point. We could now see that the feat of Shamgar was not so very wonderful as some have been accustomed to think."

In 1 Sam. 13:21, a different Hebrew word is used, dorban, meaning something pointed. The expression (Acts 9:5, omitted in the R.V.), "It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks", i.e., against the goad, was proverbial for unavailing resistance to superior power.

Goat - (1.) Heb. 'ez, the she-goat (Gen. 15:9; 30:35; 31:38). This Hebrew word is also used for the he-goat (Ex. 12:5; Lev. 4:23; Num. 28:15), and to denote a kid (Gen. 38:17, 20). Hence it may be regarded as the generic name of the animal as domesticated. It literally means "strength," and points to the superior strength of the goat as compared with the sheep.

(2.) Heb. 'attud, only in plural; rendered "rams" (Gen. 31:10,12); he-goats (Num. 7:17-88; Isa. 1:11); goats (Deut. 32:14; Ps. 50:13). They were used in sacrifice (Ps. 66:15). This word is used metaphorically for princes or chiefs in Isa. 14:9, and in Zech. 10:3 as leaders. (Comp. Jer. 50:8.)

(3.) Heb. gedi, properly a kid. Its flesh was a delicacy among the Hebrews (Gen. 27:9, 14, 17; Judg. 6:19).

(4.) Heb. sa'ir, meaning the "shaggy," a hairy goat, a he-goat (2 Chr. 29:23); "a goat" (Lev. 4:24); "satyr" (Isa. 13:21); "devils" (Lev. 17:7). It is the goat of the sin-offering (Lev. 9:3, 15; 10:16).

(5.) Heb. tsaphir, a he-goat of the goats (2 Chr. 29:21). In Dan. 8:5, 8 it is used as a symbol of the Macedonian empire.

(6.) Heb. tayish, a "striker" or "butter," rendered "he-goat" (Gen. 30:35; 32:14).

(7.) Heb. 'azazel (q.v.), the "scapegoat" (Lev. 16:8, 10,26).

(8.) There are two Hebrew words used to denote the undomesticated goat:, Yael, only in plural mountain goats (1 Sam. 24:2; Job 39:1; Ps.104:18). It is derived from a word meaning "to climb." It is the ibex, which abounded in the mountainous parts of Moab. And 'akko, only in Deut. 14:5, the wild goat.

Goats are mentioned in the New Testament in Matt. 25:32,33; Heb. 9:12,13, 19; 10:4. They represent oppressors and wicked men (Ezek. 34:17; 39:18; Matt. 25:33).

Several varieties of the goat were familiar to the Hebrews. They had an important place in their rural economy on account of the milk they afforded and the excellency of the flesh of the kid. They formed an important part of pastoral wealth (Gen. 31:10, 12;32:14; 1 Sam. 25:2).

Goath - a lowing, a place near Jerusalem, mentioned only in Jer. 31:39.

Gob - a pit, a place mentioned in 2 Sam. 21:18, 19; called also Gezer, in 1 Chr. 20:4.

Goblet - a laver or trough for washing garments. In Cant. 7:2, a bowl or drinking vessel, a bowl for mixing wine; in Ex. 24:6, a sacrificial basin. (See CUP.)

God - (A.S. and Dutch God; Dan. Gud; Ger. Gott), the name of the Divine Being. It is the rendering (1) of the Hebrew 'El, from a word meaning to be strong; (2) of 'Eloah_, plural _'Elohim. The singular form, Eloah, is used only in poetry. The plural form is more commonly used in all parts of the Bible, The Hebrew word Jehovah (q.v.), the only other word generally employed to denote the Supreme Being, is uniformly rendered in the Authorized Version by "LORD," printed in small capitals. The existence of God is taken for granted in the Bible. There is nowhere any argument to prove it. He who disbelieves this truth is spoken of as one devoid of understanding (Ps. 14:1).

The arguments generally adduced by theologians in proof of the being of God are:

(1.) The a priori argument, which is the testimony afforded by reason.

(2.) The a posteriori argument, by which we proceed logically from the facts of experience to causes. These arguments are,

(a) The cosmological, by which it is proved that there must be a First Cause of all things, for every effect must have a cause.

(b) The teleological, or the argument from design. We see everywhere the operations of an intelligent Cause in nature.

(c) The moral argument, called also the anthropological argument, based on the moral consciousness and the history of mankind, which exhibits a moral order and purpose which can only be explained on the supposition of the existence of God. Conscience and human history testify that "verily there is a God that judgeth in the earth."

The attributes of God are set forth in order by Moses in Ex. 34:6,7. (see also Deut. 6:4; 10:17; Num. 16:22; Ex. 15:11; 33:19; Isa. 44:6; Hab. 3:6; Ps. 102:26; Job 34:12.) They are also systematically classified in Rev. 5:12 and 7:12.

God's attributes are spoken of by some as absolute, i.e., such as belong to his essence as Jehovah, Jah, etc.; and relative, i.e., such as are ascribed to him with relation to his creatures. Others distinguish them into communicable, i.e., those which can be imparted in degree to his creatures: goodness, holiness, wisdom, etc.; and incommunicable, which cannot be so imparted: independence, immutability, immensity, and eternity. They are by some also divided into natural attributes, eternity, immensity, etc.; and moral, holiness, goodness, etc.

Godhead - (Acts 17:29; Rom. 1:20; Col. 2:9), the essential being or the nature of God.

Godliness - the whole of practical piety (1 Tim. 4:8; 2 Pet. 1:6). "It supposes knowledge, veneration, affection, dependence, submission, gratitude, and obedience." In 1 Tim. 3:16 it denotes the substance of revealed religion.

Goel - in Hebrew the participle of the verb gaal, "to redeem." It is rendered in the Authorized Version "kinsman," Num. 5:8; Ruth 3:12; 4:1,6,8; "redeemer," Job 19:25; "avenger," Num. 35:12; Deut. 19:6, etc. The Jewish law gave the right of redeeming and repurchasing, as well as of avenging blood, to the next relative, who was accordingly called by this name. (See REDEEMER.)

Gog - (1.) A Reubenite (1 Chr. 5:4), the father of Shimei.

(2.) The name of the leader of the hostile party described in Ezek. 38,39, as coming from the "north country" and assailing the people of Israel to their own destruction. This prophecy has been regarded as fulfilled in the conflicts of the Maccabees with Antiochus, the invasion and overthrow of the Chaldeans, and the temporary successes and destined overthrow of the Turks. But "all these interpretations are unsatisfactory and inadequate. The vision respecting Gog and Magog in the Apocalypse (Rev. 20:8) is in substance a reannouncement of this prophecy of Ezekiel. But while Ezekiel contemplates the great conflict in a more general light as what was certainly to be connected with the times of the Messiah, and should come then to its last decisive issues, John, on the other hand, writing from the commencement of the Messiah's times, describes there the last struggles and victories of the cause of Christ. In both cases alike the vision describes the final workings of the world's evil and its results in connection with the kingdom of God, only the starting-point is placed further in advance in the one case than in the other."

It has been supposed to be the name of a district in the wild north-east steppes of Central Asia, north of the Hindu-Kush, now a part of Turkestan, a region about 2,000 miles north-east of Nineveh.

Golan - exile, a city of Bashan (Deut. 4:43), one of the three cities of refuge east of Jordan, about 12 miles north-east of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 20:8). There are no further notices of it in Scripture. It became the head of the province of Gaulanitis, one of the four provinces into which Bashan was divided after the Babylonish captivity, and almost identical with the modern Jaulan, in Western Hauran, about 39 miles in length and 18 in breath.

Gold - (1.) Heb. zahab, so called from its yellow colour (Ex. 25:11; 1 Chr. 28:18; 2 Chr. 3:5).

(2.) Heb. segor, from its compactness, or as being enclosed or treasured up; thus precious or "fine gold" (1 Kings 6:20; 7:49).

(3.) Heb. paz, native or pure gold (Job 28:17; Ps. 19:10; 21:3, etc.).

(4.) Heb. betzer, "ore of gold or silver" as dug out of the mine (Job 36:19, where it means simply riches).

(5.) Heb. kethem, i.e., something concealed or separated (Job 28:16,19; Ps. 45:9; Prov. 25:12). Rendered "golden wedge" in Isa. 13:12.

(6.) Heb. haruts, i.e., dug out; poetic for gold (Prov. 8:10; 16:16; Zech. 9:3).

Gold was known from the earliest times (Gen. 2:11). It was principally used for ornaments (Gen. 24:22). It was very abundant (1 Chr. 22:14; Nah. 2:9; Dan. 3:1). Many tons of it were used in connection with the temple (2 Chr. 1:15). It was found in Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir (1 Kings 9:28; 10:1; Job 28:16), but not in Palestine.

In Dan. 2:38, the Babylonian Empire is spoken of as a "head of gold" because of its great riches; and Babylon was called by Isaiah (14:4) the "golden city" (R.V. marg., "exactress," adopting the reading marhebah, instead of the usual word madhebah).

Golden calf - (Ex. 32:4,8; Deut. 9:16; Neh. 9:18). This was a molten image of a calf which the idolatrous Israelites formed at Sinai. This symbol was borrowed from the custom of the Egyptians. It was destroyed at the command of Moses (Ex. 32:20). (See AARON ¯T0000002; MOSES.)

Goldsmith - (Neh. 3:8,32; Isa. 40:19; 41:7; 46:6). The word so rendered means properly a founder or finer.

Golgotha - the common name of the spot where Jesus was crucified. It is interpreted by the evangelists as meaning "the place of a skull" (Matt. 27:33; Mark 15:22; John 19:17). This name represents in Greek letters the Aramaic word Gulgaltha, which is the Hebrew Gulgoleth (Num. 1:2; 1 Chr. 23:3, 24; 2 Kings 9:35), meaning "a skull." It is identical with the word Calvary (q.v.). It was a little knoll rounded like a bare skull. It is obvious from the evangelists that it was some well-known spot outside the gate (comp. Heb. 13:12), and near the city (Luke 23:26), containing a "garden" (John 19:41), and on a thoroughfare leading into the country. Hence it is an untenable idea that it is embraced within the present "Church of the Holy Sepulchre." The hillock above Jeremiah's Grotto, to the north of the city, is in all probability the true site of Calvary. The skull-like appearance of the rock in the southern precipice of the hillock is very remarkable.

Goliath - great. (1.) A famous giant of Gath, who for forty days openly defied the armies of Israel, but was at length slain by David with a stone from a sling (1 Sam. 17:4). He was probably descended from the Rephaim who found refuge among the Philistines after they were dispersed by the Ammonites (Deut. 2:20, 21). His height was "six cubits and a span," which, taking the cubit at 21 inches, is equal to 10 1/2 feet. David cut off his head (1 Sam. 17:51) and brought it to Jerusalem, while he hung the armour which he took from him in his tent. His sword was preserved at Nob as a religious trophy (21:9). David's victory over Goliath was the turning point in his life. He came into public notice now as the deliverer of Israel and the chief among Saul's men of war (18:5), and the devoted friend of Jonathan.

(2.) In 2 Sam. 21:19 there is another giant of the same name mentioned as slain by Elhanan. The staff of his apear "was like a weaver's beam." The Authorized Version interpolates the words "the brother of" from 1 Chr. 20:5, where this giant is called Lahmi.

Gomer - complete; vanishing. (1.) The daughter of Diblaim, who (probably in vision only) became the wife of Hosea (1:3).

(2.) The eldest son of Japheth, and father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah (Gen. 10:2, 3), whose descendants formed the principal branch of the population of South-eastern Europe. He is generally regarded as the ancestor of the Celtae and the Cimmerii, who in early times settled to the north of the Black Sea, and gave their name to the Crimea, the ancient Chersonesus Taurica. Traces of their presence are found in the names Cimmerian Bosphorus, Cimmerian Isthmus, etc. In the seventh century B.C. they were driven out of their original seat by the Scythians, and overran western Asia Minor, whence they were afterwards expelled. They subsequently reappear in the times of the Romans as the Cimbri of the north and west of Europe, whence they crossed to the British Isles, where their descendants are still found in the Gaels and Cymry. Thus the whole Celtic race may be regarded as descended from Gomer.

Gomorrah - submersion, one of the five cities of the plain of Siddim (q.v.) which were destroyed by fire (Gen. 10:19; 13:10; 19:24, 28). These cities probably stood close together, and were near the northern extremity of what is now the Dead Sea. This city is always mentioned next after Sodom, both of which were types of impiety and wickedness (Gen. 18:20; Rom. 9:29). Their destruction is mentioned as an "ensample unto those that after should live ungodly" (2 Pet. 2:6; Jude 1:4-7). Their wickedness became proverbial (Deut. 32:32; Isa. 1:9, 10; Jer. 23:14). But that wickedness may be exceeded (Matt. 10:15; Mark 6:11). (See DEAD SEA ¯T0000991).

Goodly trees - boughs of, were to be carried in festive procession on the first day of the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40). This was probably the olive tree (Neh. 8:15), although no special tree is mentioned.

Goodness - in man is not a mere passive quality, but the deliberate preference of right to wrong, the firm and persistent resistance of all moral evil, and the choosing and following of all moral good.

Goodness of God - a perfection of his character which he exercises towards his creatures according to their various circumstances and relations (Ps. 145:8, 9; 103:8; 1 John 4:8). Viewed generally, it is benevolence; as exercised with respect to the miseries of his creatures it is mercy, pity, compassion, and in the case of impenitent sinners, long-suffering patience; as exercised in communicating favour on the unworthy it is grace. "Goodness and justice are the several aspects of one unchangeable, infinitely wise, and sovereign moral perfection. God is not sometimes merciful and sometimes just, but he is eternally infinitely just and merciful." God is infinitely and unchangeably good (Zeph. 3:17), and his goodness is incomprehensible by the finite mind (Rom. 11: 35, 36). "God's goodness appears in two things, giving and forgiving."

Gopher - a tree from the wood of which Noah was directed to build the ark (Gen. 6:14). It is mentioned only there. The LXX. render this word by "squared beams," and the Vulgate by "planed wood." Other versions have rendered it "pine" and "cedar;" but the weight of authority is in favour of understanding by it the cypress tree, which grows abundantly in Chaldea and Armenia.

Goshen - (1.) A district in Egypt where Jacob and his family settled, and in which they remained till the Exodus (Gen. 45:10; 46:28, 29, 31, etc.). It is called "the land of Goshen" (47:27), and also simply "Goshen" (46:28), and "the land of Rameses" (47:11; Ex. 12:37), for the towns Pithom and Rameses lay within its borders; also Zoan or Tanis (Ps. 78:12). It lay on the east of the Nile, and apparently not far from the royal residence. It was "the best of the land" (Gen. 47:6, 11), but is now a desert. It is first mentioned in Joseph's message to his father. It has been identified with the modern Wady Tumilat, lying between the eastern part of the Delta and the west border of Palestine. It was a pastoral district, where some of the king's cattle were kept (Gen. 47:6). The inhabitants were not exclusively Israelites (Ex. 3:22; 11:2; 12:35, 36).

(2.) A district in Palestine (Josh. 10:41; 11:16). It was a part of the maritime plain of Judah, and lay between Gaza and Gibeon.

(3.) A town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:51).

Gospel - a word of Anglo-Saxon origin, and meaning "God's spell", i.e., word of God, or rather, according to others, "good spell", i.e., good news. It is the rendering of the Greek evangelion, i.e., "good message." It denotes (1) "the welcome intelligence of salvation to man as preached by our Lord and his followers. (2.) It was afterwards transitively applied to each of the four histories of our Lord's life, published by those who are therefore called 'Evangelists', writers of the history of the gospel (the evangelion). (3.) The term is often used to express collectively the gospel doctrines; and 'preaching the gospel' is often used to include not only the proclaiming of the good tidings, but the teaching men how to avail themselves of the offer of salvation, the declaring of all the truths, precepts, promises, and threatenings of Christianity." It is termed "the gospel of the grace of God" (Acts 20:24), "the gospel of the kingdom" (Matt. 4:23), "the gospel of Christ" (Rom. 1:16), "the gospel of peace (Eph. 6:15), "the glorious gospel," "the everlasting gospel," "the gospel of salvation" (Eph. 1:13).

Gospels - The central fact of Christian preaching was the intelligence that the Saviour had come into the world (Matt. 4:23; Rom. 10:15); and the first Christian preachers who called their account of the person and mission of Christ by the term evangelion_ (= good message) were called _evangelistai (= evangelists) (Eph. 4:11; Acts 21:8).

There are four historical accounts of the person and work of Christ: "the first by Matthew, announcing the Redeemer as the promised King of the kingdom of God; the second by Mark, declaring him 'a prophet, mighty in deed and word'; the third by Luke, of whom it might be said that he represents Christ in the special character of the Saviour of sinners (Luke 7:36; 15:18); the fourth by John, who represents Christ as the Son of God, in whom deity and humanity become one. The ancient Church gave to Matthew the symbol of the lion, to Mark that of a man, to Luke that of the ox, and to John that of the eagle: these were the four faces of the cherubim" (Ezek. 1:10).

Date. The Gospels were all composed during the latter part of the first century, and there is distinct historical evidence to show that they were used and accepted as authentic before the end of the second century.

Mutual relation. "If the extent of all the coincidences be represented by 100, their proportionate distribution will be: Matthew, Mark, and Luke, 53; Matthew and Luke, 21; Matthew and Mark, 20; Mark and Luke, 6. Looking only at the general result, it may be said that of the contents of the synoptic Gospels [i.e., the first three Gospels] about two-fifths are common to the three, and that the parts peculiar to one or other of them are little more than one-third of the whole."

Origin. Did the evangelists copy from one another? The opinion is well founded that the Gospels were published by the apostles orally before they were committed to writing, and that each had an independent origin. (See MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF.)

Gourd - (1.) Jonah's gourd (Jonah 4:6-10), bearing the Hebrew name kikayon (found only here), was probably the kiki of the Egyptians, the croton. This is the castor-oil plant, a species of ricinus, the palma Christi, so called from the palmate division of its leaves. Others with more probability regard it as the cucurbita the el-keroa of the Arabs, a kind of pumpkin peculiar to the East. "It is grown in great abundance on the alluvial banks of the Tigris and on the plain between the river and the ruins of Nineveh." At the present day it is trained to run over structures of mud and brush to form boots to protect the gardeners from the heat of the noon-day sun. It grows with extraordinary rapidity, and when cut or injured withers away also with great rapidity.

(2.) Wild gourds (2 Kings 4:38-40), Heb. pakkuoth, belong to the family of the cucumber-like plants, some of which are poisonous. The species here referred to is probably the colocynth (Cucumis colocynthus). The LXX. render the word by "wild pumpkin." It abounds in the desert parts of Syria, Egypt, and Arabia. There is, however, another species, called the Cucumis prophetarum, from the idea that it afforded the gourd which "the sons of the prophets" shred by mistake into their pottage.

Government of God - See PROVIDENCE.

Governments - (1 Cor. 12:28), the powers which fit a man for a place of influence in the church; "the steersman's art; the art of guiding aright the vessel of church or state."

Governor - (1.) Heb. nagid, a prominent, conspicuous person, whatever his capacity: as, chief of the royal palace (2 Chr. 28:7; comp. 1 Kings 4:6), chief of the temple (1 Chr. 9:11; Jer. 20:1), the leader of the Aaronites (1 Chr. 12:27), keeper of the sacred treasury (26:24), captain of the army (13:1), the king (1 Sam. 9:16), the Messiah (Dan. 9:25).

(2.) Heb. nasi, raised; exalted. Used to denote the chiefs of families (Num. 3:24, 30, 32, 35); also of tribes (2:3; 7:2; 3:32). These dignities appear to have been elective, not hereditary.

(3.) Heb. pakid, an officer or magistrate. It is used of the delegate of the high priest (2 Chr. 24:11), the Levites (Neh. 11:22), a military commander (2 Kings 25:19), Joseph's officers in Egypt (Gen. 41:34).

(4.) Heb. shallit, one who has power, who rules (Gen. 42:6; Ezra 4:20; Eccl. 8:8; Dan. 2:15; 5:29).

(5.) Heb. aluph, literally one put over a thousand, i.e., a clan or a subdivision of a tribe. Used of the "dukes" of Edom (Gen. 36), and of the Jewish chiefs (Zech. 9:7).

(6.) Heb. moshel, one who rules, holds dominion. Used of many classes of rulers (Gen. 3:16; 24:2; 45:8; Ps. 105:20); of the Messiah (Micah 5:2); of God (1 Chr. 29:12; Ps. 103:19).

(7.) Heb. sar, a ruler or chief; a word of very general use. It is used of the chief baker of Pharaoh (Gen. 40:16); of the chief butler (40:2, etc. See also Gen. 47:6; Ex. 1:11; Dan. 1:7; Judg. 10:18; 1 Kings 22:26; 20:15; 2 Kings 1:9; 2 Sam. 24:2). It is used also of angels, guardian angels (Dan. 10:13, 20, 21; 12:1; 10:13; 8:25).

(8.) Pehah, whence pasha, i.e., friend of the king; adjutant; governor of a province (2 Kings 18:24; Isa. 36:9; Jer. 51: 57; Ezek. 23:6, 23; Dan. 3:2; Esther 3: 12), or a perfect (Neh. 3:7; 5:14; Ezra 5:3; Hag. 1:1). This is a foreign word, Assyrian, which was early adopted into the Hebrew idiom (1 Kings 10:15).

(9.) The Chaldean word segan is applied to the governors of the Babylonian satrapies (Dan. 3:2, 27; 6:7); the prefects over the Magi (2:48). The corresponding Hebrew word segan is used of provincial rulers (Jer. 51:23, 28, 57); also of chiefs and rulers of the people of Jerusalem (Ezra 9:2; Neh. 2:16; 4:14, 19; 5:7, 17; 7:5; 12:40).

In the New Testament there are also different Greek words rendered thus.

(1.) Meaning an ethnarch (2 Cor. 11:32), which was an office distinct from military command, with considerable latitude of application.

(2.) The procurator of Judea under the Romans (Matt. 27:2). (Comp. Luke 2:2, where the verb from which the Greek word so rendered is derived is used.)

(3.) Steward (Gal. 4:2).

(4.) Governor of the feast (John 2:9), who appears here to have been merely an intimate friend of the bridegroom, and to have presided at the marriage banquet in his stead.

(5.) A director, i.e., helmsman; Lat. gubernator, (James 3:4).

Gozan - a region in Central Asia to which the Israelites were carried away captive (2 Kings 17:6; 1 Chr. 5:26; 2 Kings 19:12; Isa. 37:12). It was situated in Mesopotamia, on the river Habor (2 Kings 17:6; 18:11), the Khabur, a tributary of the Euphrates. The "river of Gozan" (1 Chr. 5:26) is probably the upper part of the river flowing through the province of Gozan, now Kizzel-Ozan.

Grace - (1.) Of form or person (Prov. 1:9; 3:22; Ps. 45:2). (2.) Favour, kindness, friendship (Gen. 6:8; 18:3; 19:19; 2 Tim. 1:9). (3.) God's forgiving mercy (Rom. 11:6; Eph. 2:5). (4.) The gospel as distinguished from the law (John 1:17; Rom. 6:14; 1 Pet. 5:12). (5.) Gifts freely bestowed by God; as miracles, prophecy, tongues (Rom. 15:15; 1 Cor. 15:10; Eph. 3:8). (6.) Christian virtues (2 Cor. 8:7; 2 Pet. 3:18). (7.) The glory hereafter to be revealed (1 Pet. 1:13).

Grace, means of - an expression not used in Scripture, but employed (1) to denote those institutions ordained by God to be the ordinary channels of grace to the souls of men. These are the Word, Sacraments, and Prayer.

(2.) But in popular language the expression is used in a wider sense to denote those exercises in which we engage for the purpose of obtaining spiritual blessing; as hearing the gospel, reading the Word, meditation, self-examination, Christian conversation, etc.

Graft - the process of inoculating fruit-trees (Rom. 11:17-24). It is peculiarly appropriate to olive-trees. The union thus of branches to a stem is used to illustrate the union of true believers to the true Church.

Grain - used, in Amos 9:9, of a small stone or kernel; in Matt. 13:31, of an individual seed of mustard; in John 12:24, 1 Cor. 15:37, of wheat. The Hebrews sowed only wheat, barley, and spelt; rye and oats are not mentioned in Scripture.

Grape - the fruit of the vine, which was extensively cultivated in Palestine. Grapes are spoken of as "tender" (Cant. 2:13, 15), "unripe" (Job 15:33), "sour" (Isa. 18:5), "wild" (Isa. 5:2,4). (See Rev. 14:18; Micah 7:1; Jer. 6:9; Ezek. 18:2, for figurative use of the word.) (See VINE.)

Grass - (1.) Heb. hatsir, ripe grass fit for mowing (1 Kings 18:5; Job 40:15; Ps. 104:14). As the herbage rapidly fades under the scorching sun, it is used as an image of the brevity of human life (Isa. 40:6, 7; Ps. 90:5). In Num. 11:5 this word is rendered "leeks."

(2.) Heb. deshe', green grass (Gen. 1:11, 12; Isa. 66:14; Deut. 32:2). "The sickly and forced blades of grass which spring up on the flat plastered roofs of houses in the East are used as an emblem of speedy destruction, because they are small and weak, and because, under the scorching rays of the sun, they soon wither away" (2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 129:6; Isa. 37:27).

The dry stalks of grass were often used as fuel for the oven (Matt. 6:30; 13:30; Luke 12:28).

Grasshopper - belongs to the class of neuropterous insects called Gryllidae. This insect is not unknown in Palestine.

In Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Job 39:30; Jer. 46:23, where the Authorized Version has "grasshopper," the Revised Version more correctly renders the Hebrew word ('arbeh) by "locust." This is the case also in Amos 7:1; Nah. 3:17, where the Hebrew word gob is used; and in Lev. 11:22; Num. 13:33; Eccl. 12:5; Isa. 40:22, where hagab is used. In all these instances the proper rendering is probably "locust" (q.v.).

Grate - a network of brass for the bottom of the great altar of sacrifice (Ex. 27:4; 35:16; 38:4, 5, 30).

Grave - Among the ancient Hebrews graves were outside of cities in the open field (Luke 7:12; John 11:30). Kings (1 Kings 2:10) and prophets (1 Sam. 25:1) were generally buried within cities. Graves were generally grottoes or caves, natural or hewn out in rocks (Isa. 22:16; Matt. 27:60). There were family cemeteries (Gen. 47:29; 50:5; 2 Sam. 19:37). Public burial-places were assigned to the poor (Jer. 26:23; 2 Kings 23:6). Graves were usually closed with stones, which were whitewashed, to warn strangers against contact with them (Matt. 23:27), which caused ceremonial pollution (Num. 19:16).

There were no graves in Jerusalem except those of the kings, and according to tradition that of the prophetess Huldah.

Graven image - Deut. 27:15; Ps. 97:7 (Heb. pesel), refers to the household gods of idolaters. "Every nation and city had its own gods...Yet every family had its separate household or tutelary god."

Graving - (1.) Heb. hatsabh. Job 19:24, rendered "graven," but generally means hewn stone or wood, in quarry or forest.

(2.) Heb. harush. Jer. 17:1, rendered "graven," and indicates generally artistic work in metal, wood, and stone, effected by fine instruments.

(3.) Heb. haqaq. Ezek. 4:1, engraving a plan or map, rendered "pourtray;" Job 19:23, "written."

(4.) Heb. pasal points rather to the sculptor's or the carver's art (Isa. 30:22; 40:19; 41:7; 44:12-15).

(5.) Pathah refers to intaglio work, the cutting and engraving of precious stones (Ex. 28:9-11, 21; Zech. 3:9; Cant. 1:10, 11).

(6.) Heret. In Ex. 32:4 rendered "graving tool;" and in Isa. 8:1, "a pen."

Greaves - only in 1 Sam. 17:6, a piece of defensive armour (q.v.) reaching from the foot to the knee; from French greve, "the shin." They were the Roman cothurni.

Grecians - Hellenists, Greek-Jews; Jews born in a foreign country, and thus did not speak Hebrew (Acts 6:1; 9:29), nor join in the Hebrew services of the Jews in Palestine, but had synagogues of their own in Jerusalem. Joel 3:6 =Greeks.

Greece - orginally consisted of the four provinces of Macedonia, Epirus, Achaia, and Peleponnesus. In Acts 20:2 it designates only the Roman province of Macedonia. Greece was conquered by the Romans B.C. 146. After passing through various changes it was erected into an independent monarchy in 1831.

Moses makes mention of Greece under the name of Javan (Gen. 10:2-5); and this name does not again occur in the Old Testament till the time of Joel (3:6). Then the Greeks and Hebrews first came into contact in the Tyrian slave-market. Prophetic notice is taken of Greece in Dan. 8:21.

The cities of Greece were the special scenes of the labours of the apostle Paul.

Greek - Found only in the New Testament, where a distinction is observed between "Greek" and "Grecian" (q.v.). The former is (1) a Greek by race (Acts 16:1-3; 18:17; Rom. 1:14), or (2) a Gentile as opposed to a Jew (Rom. 2:9, 10). The latter, meaning properly "one who speaks Greek," is a foreign Jew opposed to a home Jew who dwelt in Palestine.

The word "Grecians" in Acts 11:20 should be "Greeks," denoting the heathen Greeks of that city, as rendered in the Revised Version according to the reading of the best manuscripts ("Hellenes").

Greyhound - (Prov. 30:31), the rendering of the Hebrew zarzir mothnayim, meaning literally "girded as to the lions." Some (Gesen.; R.V. marg.) render it "war-horse." The LXX. and Vulgate versions render it "cock." It has been by some interpreters rendered also "stag" and "warrior," as being girded about or panoplied, and "wrestler." The greyhound, however, was evidently known in ancient times, as appears from Egyptian monuments.

Grind - (Ex. 32:20; Deut. 9:21; Judg. 16:21), to crush small (Heb. tahan); to oppress the poor (Isa. 3:5). The hand-mill was early used by the Hebrews (Num. 11:8). It consisted of two stones, the upper (Deut. 24:6; 2 Sam. 11:21) being movable and slightly concave, the lower being stationary. The grinders mentioned Eccl. 12:3 are the teeth. (See MILL.)

Grizzled - party-coloured, as goats (Gen. 31:10, 12), horses (Zech. 6:3, 6).

Grove - (1.) Heb. 'asherah, properly a wooden image, or a pillar representing Ashtoreth, a sensual Canaanitish goddess, probably usually set up in a grove (2 Kings 21:7; 23:4). In the Revised Version the word "Asherah" (q.v.) is introduced as a proper noun, the name of the wooden symbol of a goddess, with the plurals Asherim (Ex. 34:13) and Asheroth (Judg. 3:13).

The LXX. have rendered asherah in 2 Chr. 15:16 by "Astarte." The Vulgate has done this also in Judg. 3:7.

(2.) Heb. 'eshel (Gen. 21:33). In 1 Sam. 22:6 and 31:13 the Authorized Version renders this word by "tree." In all these passages the Revised Version renders by "tamarisk tree." It has been identified with the Tamariscus orientalis, five species of which are found in Palestine.

(3.) The Heb. word 'elon, uniformly rendered in the Authorized Version by "plain," properly signifies a grove or plantation. In the Revised Version it is rendered, pl., "oaks" (Gen. 13:18; 14:13; 18:1; 12:6; Deut. 11:30; Josh. 19:33). In the earliest times groves are mentioned in connection with religious worship. The heathen consecrated groves to particular gods, and for this reason they were forbidden to the Jews (Jer. 17:3; Ezek. 20:28).

Guard - (1.) Heb. tabbah (properly a "cook," and in a secondary sense "executioner," because this office fell to the lot of the cook in Eastern countries), the bodyguard of the kings of Egypt (Gen. 37:36) and Babylon (2 Kings 25:8; Jer. 40:1; Dan. 2:14).

(2.) Heb. rats, properly a "courier," one whose office was to run before the king's chariot (2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Kings 1:5). The couriers were also military guards (1 Sam. 22:17; 2 Kings 10:25). They were probably the same who under David were called Pelethites (1 Kings 14:27; 2 Sam. 15:1).

(3.) Heb. mishmereth, one who watches (Neh. 4:22), or a watch-station (7:3; 12:9; Job 7:12).

In the New Testament (Mark 6:27) the Authorized Version renders the Greek spekulator by "executioner," earlier English versions by "hangman," the Revised Version by "soldier of his guard." The word properly means a "pikeman" or "halberdier," of whom the bodyguard of kings and princes was composed. In Matt. 27:65, 66; 28:11, the Authorized Version renders the Greek kustodia by "watch," and the Revised Version by "guard," the Roman guard, which consisted of four soldiers, who were relieved every three hours (Acts 12:4). The "captain of the guard" mentioned Acts 28:16 was the commander of the Praetorian troops, whose duty it was to receive and take charge of all prisoners from the provinces.

Guest-chamber - the spare room on the upper floor of an Eastern dwelling (Mark 14:14; Luke 22:11). In Luke 2:7 the word is translated "inn" (q.v.).

Gur - a whelp, a place near Ibleam where Jehu's servants overtook and mortally wounded king Ahaziah (2 Kings 9:27); an ascent from the plain of Jezreel.

Gur-baal - sojourn of Baal, a place in Arabia (2 Chr. 26:7) where there was probably a temple of Baal.

Gutter - Heb. tsinnor, (2 Sam. 5:8). This Hebrew word occurs only elsewhere in Ps. 42:7 in the plural, where it is rendered "waterspouts." It denotes some passage through which water passed; a water-course.

"H"

Halt - lame on the feet (Gen. 32:31; Ps. 38:17). To "halt between two opinions" (1 Kings 18:21) is supposed by some to be an expression used in "allusion to birds, which hop from spray to spray, forwards and backwards." The LXX. render the expression "How long go ye lame on both knees?" The Hebrew verb rendered "halt" is used of the irregular dance ("leaped upon") around the altar (ver. 26). It indicates a lame, uncertain gait, going now in one direction, now in another, in the frenzy of wild leaping.

Ham - warm, hot, and hence the south; also an Egyptian word meaning "black", the youngest son of Noah (Gen. 5:32; comp. 9:22,24). The curse pronounced by Noah against Ham, properly against Canaan his fourth son, was accomplished when the Jews subsequently exterminated the Canaanites.

One of the most important facts recorded in Gen. 10 is the foundation of the earliest monarchy in Babylonia by Nimrod the grandson of Ham (6, 8, 10). The primitive Babylonian empire was thus Hamitic, and of a cognate race with the primitive inhabitants of Arabia and of Ethiopia. (See ACCAD.)

The race of Ham were the most energetic of all the descendants of Noah in the early times of the post-diluvian world.

Haman - (of Persian origin), magnificent, the name of the vizier (i.e., the prime minister) of the Persian king Ahasuerus (Esther 3:1, etc.). He is called an "Agagite," which seems to denote that he was descended from the royal family of the Amalekites, the bitterest enemies of the Jews, as Agag was one of the titles of the Amalekite kings. He or his parents were brought to Persia as captives taken in war. He was hanged on the gallows which he had erected for Mordecai the Jew (Esther 7:10). (See ESTHER.)

Hamath - fortress, the capital of one of the kingdoms of Upper Syria of the same name, on the Orontes, in the valley of Lebanon, at the northern boundary of Palestine (Num. 13:21; 34:8), at the foot of Hermon (Josh. 13:5) towards Damascus (Zech. 9:2; Jer. 49:23). It is called "Hamath the great" in Amos 6:2, and "Hamath-zobah" in 2 Chr. 8:3.

Hamath, now Hamah, had an Aramaean population, but Hittite monuments discovered there show that it must have been at one time occupied by the Hittites. It was among the conquests of the Pharaoh Thothmes III. Its king, Tou or Toi, made alliance with David (2 Sam. 8:10), and in B.C. 740 Azariah formed a league with it against Assyria. It was, however, conquered by the Assyrians, and its nineteen districts placed under Assyrian governors. In B.C. 720 it revolted under a certain Yahu-bihdi, whose name, compounded with that of the God of Israel (Yahu), perhaps shows that he was of Jewish origin. But the revolt was suppressed, and the people of Hamath were transported to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24, 30), where they continued to worship their god Ashima. Hamah is beautifully situated on the Orontes, 32 miles north of Emesa, and 36 south of the ruins of Assamea.

The kingdom of Hamath comprehended the great plain lying on both banks of the Orontes from the fountain near Riblah to Assamea on the north, and from Lebanon on the west to the desert on the east. The "entrance of Hamath" (Num. 34:8), which was the north boundary of Palestine, led from the west between the north end of Lebanon and the Nusairiyeh mountains.

Hamath-zobah - fortress of Zobah, (2 Chr. 8:3) is supposed by some to be a different place from the foregoing; but this is quite uncertain.

Hammath - warm springs, one of the "fenced cities" of Naphtali (Josh. 19:35). It is identified with the warm baths (the heat of the water ranging from 136 degrees to 144 degrees) still found on the shore a little to the south of Tiberias under the name of Hummam Tabariyeh ("Bath of Tiberias").

Hammedatha - father of Haman, designated usually "the Agagite" (Esther 3:1, 10; 8:5).

Hammelech - the king's, the father of Jerahmeel, mentioned in Jer. 36:26. Some take this word as a common noun, "the king", and understand that Jerahmeel was Jehoiakim's son. Probably, however, it is to be taken as a proper name.

Hammer - (1.) Heb. pattish, used by gold-beaters (Isa. 41:7) and by quarry-men (Jer. 23:29). Metaphorically of Babylon (Jer. 50:23) or Nebuchadnezzar.

(2.) Heb. makabah, a stone-cutter's mallet (1 Kings 6:7), or of any workman (Judg. 4:21; Isa. 44:12).

(3.) Heb. halmuth, a poetical word for a workman's hammer, found only in Judg. 5:26, where it denotes the mallet with which the pins of the tent of the nomad are driven into the ground.

(4.) Heb. mappets, rendered "battle-axe" in Jer. 51:20. This was properly a "mace," which is thus described by Rawlinson: "The Assyrian mace was a short, thin weapon, and must either have been made of a very tough wood or (and this is more probable) of metal. It had an ornamented head, which was sometimes very beautifully modelled, and generally a strap or string at the lower end by which it could be grasped with greater firmness."

Hammoleketh - the queen, the daughter of Machir and sister of Gilead (1 Chr. 7:17, 18). Abiezer was one of her three children.

Hammon - warm springs. (1.) A town in the tribe of Asher, near Zidon (Josh. 19:28), identified with 'Ain Hamul.

(2.) A Levitical city of Naphtali (1 Chr. 6:76).

Hammoth-dor - warm springs, a Levitical city of Naphtali (Josh. 21:32); probably Hammath in 19:35.

Hamon - See BAAL-HAMON ¯T0000390.

Hamonah - multitude, a name figuratively assigned to the place in which the slaughter and burial of the forces of Gog were to take place (Ezek. 39:16).

Hamon-gog - multitude of Gog, the name of the valley in which the slaughtered forces of Gog are to be buried (Ezek. 39:11,15), "the valley of the passengers on the east of the sea."

Hamor - he-ass, a Hivite from whom Jacob purchased the plot of ground in which Joseph was afterwards buried (Gen. 33:19). He is called "Emmor" in Acts 7:16. His son Shechem founded the city of that name which Simeon and Levi destroyed because of his crime in the matter of Dinah, Jacob's daughter (Gen. 34:20). Hamor and Shechem were also slain (ver. 26).

Hamul - spared, one of the sons of Pharez, son of Judah (1 Chr. 2:5). His descendants are called Hamulites (Num. 26:21).

Hamutal - kinsman of the dew, the daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, wife of king Josiah, and mother of king Jehoahaz (2 Kings 23:31), also of king Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:18).

Hanameel - whom God has graciously given, the cousin of Jeremiah, to whom he sold the field he possessed in Anathoth, before the siege of Jerusalem (Jer. 32:6-12).

Hanan - merciful. (1.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:23). (2.) One of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:43). (3.) Jer. 35:4. (4.) A descendant of Saul (1 Chr. 8:38). (5.) One of the Nethinim (Ezra 2:46). (6.) One of the Levites who assisted Ezra (Neh. 8:7). (7.) One of the chiefs who subscribed the covenant (Neh. 10:22).

Hananeel - God has graciously given, a tower in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:1; 12:39). It is mentioned also in Jer. 31:38; Zech. 14:10.

Hanani - God has gratified me, or is gracious. (1.) One of the sons of Heman (1 Chr. 25:4, 25). (2.) A prophet who was sent to rebuke king Asa for entering into a league with Benhadad I., king of Syria, against Judah (2 Chr. 16:1-10). He was probably the father of the prophet Jehu (1 Kings 16:7). (3.) Probably a brother of Nehemiah (Neh. 1:2; 7:2), who reported to him the melancholy condition of Jerusalem. Nehemiah afterwards appointed him to have charge of the city gates.

Hananiah - Jehovah has given. (1.) A chief of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:24). (2.) One of the sons of Heman (1 Chr. 25:4,23). (3.) One of Uzziah's military officers (2 Chr. 26:11). (4.) Grandfather of the captain who arrested Jeremiah (Jer. 37:13). (5.) Jer. 36:12. (6.) Neh. 10:23. (7.) Shadrach, one of the "three Hebrew children" (Dan. 1; 6:7). (8.) Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:19, 21). (9.) Ezra 10:28. (10.) The "ruler of the palace; he was a faithful man, and feared God above many" (Neh. 7:2). (11.) Neh. 3:8. (12.) Neh. 3:30 (13.) A priest, son of Jeremiah (Neh. 12:12). (14.) A false prophet contemporary with Jeremiah (28:3, 17).

Hand - Called by Galen "the instrument of instruments." It is the symbol of human action (Ps. 9:16; Job 9:30; Isa. 1:15; 1 Tim. 2:8). Washing the hands was a symbol of innocence (Ps. 26:6; 73:13; Matt. 27:24), also of sanctification (1 Cor. 6:11; Isa. 51:16; Ps. 24:3, 4). In Ps. 77:2 the correct rendering is, as in the Revised Version, "My hand was stretched out," etc., instead of, as in the Authorized Version, "My sore ran in the night," etc.

The right hand denoted the south, and the left the north (Job 23:9; 1 Sam. 23:19). To give the right hand was a pledge of fidelity (2 Kings 10:15; Ezra 10:19); also of submission to the victors (Ezek. 17:18; Jer. 50:15). The right hand was lifted up in taking an oath (Gen. 14:22, etc.). The hand is frequently mentioned, particularly the right hand, as a symbol of power and strength (Ps. 60:5; Isa. 28:2). To kiss the hand is an act of homage (1 Kings 19:18; Job 31:27), and to pour water on one's hands is to serve him (2 Kings 3:11). The hand of God is the symbol of his power: its being upon one denotes favour (Ezra 7:6, 28; Isa. 1:25; Luke 1:66, etc.) or punishment (Ex. 9:3; Judg. 2:15; Acts 13:11, etc.). A position at the right hand was regarded as the chief place of honour and power (Ps. 45:9; 80:17; 110:1; Matt. 26:64).

Handbreadth - a measure of four fingers, equal to about four inches (Ex. 25:25; 37:12; Ps. 39:5, etc.).

Handkerchief - Only once in Authorized Version (Acts 19:12). The Greek word (sudarion) so rendered means properly "a sweat-cloth." It is rendered "napkin" in John 11:44; 20:7; Luke 19:20.

Handmaid - servant (Gen. 16:1; Ruth 3:9; Luke 1:48). It is probable that Hagar was Sarah's personal attendant while she was in the house of Pharaoh, and was among those maid-servants whom Abram had brought from Egypt.

Handwriting - (Col. 2:14). The "blotting out the handwriting" is the removal by the grace of the gospel of the condemnation of the law which we had broken.

Hanes - a place in Egypt mentioned only in Isa. 30:4 in connection with a reproof given to the Jews for trusting in Egypt. It was considered the same as Tahpanhes, a fortified town on the eastern frontier, but has been also identified as Ahnas-el-Medeeneh, 70 miles from Cairo.

Hanging - (as a punishment), a mark of infamy inflicted on the dead bodies of criminals (Deut. 21:23) rather than our modern mode of punishment. Criminals were first strangled and then hanged (Nu. 25:4; Deut. 21:22). (See 2 Sam. 21:6 for the practice of the Gibeonites.)

Hanging (as a curtain). (1.) Heb. masak, (a) before the entrance to the court of the tabernacle (Ex. 35:17); (b) before the door of the tabernacle (26:36, 37); (c) before the entrance to the most holy place, called "the veil of the covering" (35:12; 39:34), as the word properly means.

(2.) Heb. kelaim, tapestry covering the walls of the tabernacle (Ex. 27:9; 35:17; Num. 3:26) to the half of the height of the wall (Ex. 27:18; comp. 26:16). These hangings were fastened to pillars.

(3.) Heb. bottim (2 Kings 23:7), "hangings for the grove" (R.V., "for the Asherah"); marg., instead of "hangings," has "tents" or "houses." Such curtained structures for idolatrous worship are also alluded to in Ezek. 16:16.

Hannah - favour, grace, one of the wives of Elkanah the Levite, and the mother of Samuel (1 Sam. 1; 2). Her home was at Ramathaim-zophim, whence she was wont every year to go to Shiloh, where the tabernacle had been pitched by Joshua, to attend the offering of sacrifices there according to the law (Ex. 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:16), probably at the feast of the Passover (comp. Ex. 13:10). On occasion of one of these "yearly" visits, being grieved by reason of Peninnah's conduct toward her, she went forth alone, and kneeling before the Lord at the sanctuary she prayed inaudibly. Eli the high priest, who sat at the entrance to the holy place, observed her, and misunderstanding her character he harshly condemned her conduct (1 Sam. 1:14-16). After hearing her explanation he retracted his injurious charge and said to her, "Go in peace: and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition." Perhaps the story of the wife of Manoah was not unknown to her. Thereafter Elkanah and his family retired to their quiet home, and there, before another Passover, Hannah gave birth to a son, whom, in grateful memory of the Lord's goodness, she called Samuel, i.e., "heard of God." After the child was weaned (probably in his third year) she brought him to Shiloh into the house of the Lord, and said to Eli the aged priest, "Oh my lord, I am the woman that stood by thee here, praying unto the Lord. For this child I prayed; and the Lord hath given me my petition which I asked of him: therefore I also have granted him to the Lord; as long as he liveth he is granted to the Lord" (1 Sam. 1:27, 28, R.V.). Her gladness of heart then found vent in that remarkable prophetic song (2:1-10; comp. Luke 1:46-55) which contains the first designation of the Messiah under that name (1 Sam. 2:10, "Annointed" = "Messiah"). And so Samuel and his parents parted. He was left at Shiloh to minister "before the Lord." And each year, when they came up to Shiloh, Hannah brought to her absent child "a little coat" (Heb. meil, a term used to denote the "robe" of the ephod worn by the high priest, Ex. 28:31), a priestly robe, a long upper tunic (1 Chr. 15:27), in which to minister in the tabernacle (1 Sam. 2:19; 15:27; Job 2:12). "And the child Samuel grew before the Lord." After Samuel, Hannah had three sons and two daughters.

Hanniel - grace of God. (1.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh (Num. 34:23). (2.) A chief of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7:39).

Hanun - graciously given. (1.) The son and successor of Nahash, king of Moab. David's messengers, sent on an embassy of condolence to him to Rabbah Ammon, his capital, were so grossly insulted that he proclaimed war against Hanun. David's army, under the command of Joab, forthwith crossed the Jordan, and gained a complete victory over the Moabites and their allies (2 Sam. 10:1-14) at Medeba (q.v.).

(2.) Neh. 3:13. (3.) 3:30.

Hara - mountainous land, a province of Assyria (1 Chr. 5:26), between the Tigris and the Euphrates, along the banks of the Khabur, to which some of the Israelite captives were carried. It has not been identified. Some think the word a variation of Haran.

Haradah - fright; fear, the twenty-fifth station of the Israelites in their wanderings (Num. 33:24).

Haran - (1.) Heb. haran; i.e., "mountaineer." The eldest son of Terah, brother of Abraham and Nahor, and father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah. He died before his father (Gen. 11:27), in Ur of the Chaldees.

(2.) Heb. haran, i.e., "parched;" or probably from the Accadian charana, meaning "a road." A celebrated city of Western Asia, now Harran, where Abram remained, after he left Ur of the Chaldees, till his father Terah died (Gen. 11:31, 32), when he continued his journey into the land of Canaan. It is called "Charran" in the LXX. and in Acts 7:2. It is called the "city of Nahor" (Gen. 24:10), and Jacob resided here with Laban (30:43). It stood on the river Belik, an affluent of the Euphrates, about 70 miles above where it joins that river in Upper Mesopotamia or Padan-aram, and about 600 miles northwest of Ur in a direct line. It was on the caravan route between the east and west. It is afterwards mentioned among the towns taken by the king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:12; Isa. 37:12). It was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name Carrhae.

(3.) The son of Caleb of Judah (1 Chr. 2:46) by his concubine Ephah.

Harbona - (a Persian word meaning "ass-driver"), one of the seven eunuchs or chamberlains of king Ahasuerus (Esther 1:10; 7:9).

Hare - (Heb. 'arnebeth) was prohibited as food according to the Mosaic law (Lev. 11:6; Deut. 14:7), "because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof." The habit of this animal is to grind its teeth and move its jaw as if it actually chewed the cud. But, like the cony (q.v.), it is not a ruminant with four stomachs, but a rodent like the squirrel, rat, etc. Moses speaks of it according to appearance. It is interdicted because, though apparently chewing the cud, it did not divide the hoof.

There are two species in Syria, (1) the Lepus Syriacus or Syrian hare, which is like the English hare; and (2) the Lepus Sinaiticus, or hare of the desert. No rabbits are found in Syria.

Hareth - thicket, a wood in the mountains of Judah where David hid when pursued by Saul (1 Sam. 22:5). It was possibly while he was here that the memorable incident narrated in 2 Sam. 23:14-17, 1 Chr. 11:16-19 occurred. This place has not been identified, but perhaps it may be the modern Kharas, on the borders of the chain of mountains some 3 miles east of Keilah.

Harhaiah - zeal of Jehovah, (Neh. 3:8) "of the goldsmiths," one whose son helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem.

Harhur - fever, one of the Nethinim (Ezra 2:51).

Harim - flat-nosed. (1.) The head of the second course of priests (1 Chr. 24:8). (2.) Ezra 2:32, 39; Neh. 7:35, 42. (3.) Neh. 3:11. (4.) 12:3. (5.) 10:5

Hariph - autumnal rain. (1.) Neh. 7:24. (2.) 10:19.

Harlot - (1.) Heb. zonah (Gen. 34:31; 38:15). In verses 21, 22 the Hebrew word used in kedeshah, i.e., a woman consecrated or devoted to prostitution in connection with the abominable worship of Asherah or Astarte, the Syrian Venus. This word is also used in Deut. 23:17; Hos. 4:14. Thus Tamar sat by the wayside as a consecrated kedeshah.

It has been attempted to show that Rahab, usually called a "harlot" (Josh. 2:1; 6:17; Heb. 11:31; James 2:25), was only an innkeeper. This interpretation, however, cannot be maintained.

Jephthah's mother is called a "strange woman" (Judg. 11:2). This, however, merely denotes that she was of foreign extraction.

In the time of Solomon harlots appeared openly in the streets, and he solemnly warns against association with them (Prov. 7:12; 9:14. See also Jer. 3:2; Ezek. 16:24, 25, 31). The Revised Version, following the LXX., has "and the harlots washed," etc., instead of the rendering of the Authorized Version, "now they washed," of 1 Kings 22:38.

To commit fornication is metaphorically used for to practice idolatry (Jer. 3:1; Ezek. 16:15; Hos. throughout); hence Jerusalem is spoken of as a harlot (Isa. 1:21).

(2.) Heb. nokriyah, the "strange woman" (1 Kings 11:1; Prov. 5:20; 7:5; 23:27). Those so designated were Canaanites and other Gentiles (Josh. 23:13). To the same class belonged the "foolish", i.e., the sinful, "woman."

In the New Testament the Greek pornai, plural, "harlots," occurs in Matt. 21:31,32, where they are classed with publicans; Luke 15:30; 1 Cor. 6:15,16; Heb. 11:31; James 2:25. It is used symbolically in Rev. 17:1, 5, 15, 16; 19:2.

Harnepher - a chief of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7:36).

Harness - (1.) Heb. 'asar, "to bind;" hence the act of fastening animals to a cart (1 Sam. 6:7, 10; Jer. 46:4, etc.).

(2.) An Old English word for "armour;" Heb. neshek (2 Chr. 9:24).

(3.) Heb. shiryan, a coat of mail (1 Kings 22:34; 2 Chr. 18:33; rendered "breastplate" in Isa. 59:17).

(4.) The children of Israel passed out of Egypt "harnessed" (Ex. 13:18), i.e., in an orderly manner, and as if to meet a foe. The word so rendered is probably a derivative from Hebrew hamesh (i.e., "five"), and may denote that they went up in five divisions, viz., the van, centre, two wings, and rear-guard.

Harod - palpitation, a fountain near which Gideon and his army encamped on the morning of the day when they encountered and routed the Midianites (Judg. 7). It was south of the hill Moreh. The present 'Ain Jalud ("Goliath's Fountain"), south of Jezreel and nearly opposite Shunem, is probably the fountain here referred to (7:4, 5).

Harodite - an epithet applied to two of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:25). (Comp. 1 Chr. 11:27.)

Harosheth of the Gentiles - (Judg. 4:2) or nations, a city near Hazor in Galilee of the Gentiles, or Upper Galilee, in the north of Palestine. It was here that Jabin's great army was marshalled before it went forth into the great battlefield of Esdraelon to encounter the army of Israel, by which it was routed and put to flight (Judg. 4). It was situated "at the entrance of the pass to Esdraelon from the plain of Acre" at the base of Carmel. The name in the Hebrew is Harosheth ha Gojim, i.e., "the smithy of the nations;" probably, as is supposed, so called because here Jabin's iron war-chariots, armed with scythes, were made. It is identified with el-Harithiyeh.

Harp - (Heb. kinnor), the national instrument of the Hebrews. It was invented by Jubal (Gen. 4:21). Some think the word kinnor denotes the whole class of stringed instruments. It was used as an accompaniment to songs of cheerfulness as well as of praise to God (Gen. 31:27; 1 Sam. 16:23; 2 Chr. 20:28; Ps. 33:2; 137:2).

In Solomon's time harps were made of almug-trees (1 Kings 10:11, 12). In 1 Chr. 15:21 mention is made of "harps on the Sheminith;" Revised Version, "harps set to the Sheminith;" better perhaps "harps of eight strings." The soothing effect of the music of the harp is referred to 1 Sam. 16:16, 23; 18:10; 19:9. The church in heaven is represented as celebrating the triumphs of the Redeemer "harping with their harps" (Rev. 14:2).

Harrow - (Heb. harits), a tribulum or sharp threshing sledge; a frame armed on the under side with rollers or sharp spikes (2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 20:3).

Heb. verb sadad, to harrow a field, break its clods (Job 39:10; Isa. 28:4; Hos. 10: 11). Its form is unknown. It may have resembled the instrument still in use in Egypt.

Harsha - worker or enchanter, one of the Nethinim (Ezra 2:52; Neh. 7:54).

Hart - (Heb. 'ayal), a stag or male deer. It is ranked among the clean animals (Deut. 12:15; 14:5; 15:22), and was commonly killed for food (1 Kings 4:23). The hart is frequently alluded to in the poetical and prophetical books (Isa. 35:6; Cant. 2:8, 9; Lam. 1:6; Ps. 42:1).

Harum - elevated, (1 Chr. 4:8), a descendant of Judah.

Haruphite - a native of Hariph; an epithet given to Shephatiah, one of those who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:5).

Haruz - eager, the father of Meshullemeth, the wife of king Manasseh (2 Kings 21:19) and mother of king Amon.

Harvest - the season for gathering grain or fruit. On the 16th day of Abib (or April) a handful of ripe ears of corn was offered as a first-fruit before the Lord, and immediately after this the harvest commenced (Lev. 23:9-14; 2 Sam. 21:9, 10; Ruth 2:23). It began with the feast of Passover and ended with Pentecost, thus lasting for seven weeks (Ex. 23:16). The harvest was a season of joy (Ps. 126:1-6; Isa. 9:3). This word is used figuratively Matt. 9:37; 13:30; Luke 10:2; John 4:35. (See AGRICULTURE.)

Hasadiah - favoured by Jehovah, one of the sons of Pedaiah (1 Chr. 3:20), of the royal line of David.

Hasenuah - bristling or hated, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 9:7).

Hashabiah - regarded by Jehovah. (1.) Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 6:45; 9:14). (2.) A son of Jeduthun (25:3, 19). (3.) Son of Kemuel (26:30). (4.) One of the chief Levites (2 Chr. 35:9). (5.) A Levite (Neh. 11:22). (6.) One of the chief priests in the time of Ezra (Ezra 8:24). (7.) A chief of the Levites (Neh. 12:24). (8.) Ezra 8:19. (9.) Neh. 3:17.

Hashabniah - (1.) Neh. 3:10. (2.) One of the Levites whom Ezra appointed to interpret the law to the people (Neh. 9:5).

Hashbadana - consideration in judging, stood at Ezra's left hand when he read the law (Neh. 8:4).

Hashmonah - fatness, the thirtieth halting-place of the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness, not far from Mount Hor (Num. 33:29, 30).

Hashub - intelligent. (1.) A Levite of the family of Merari (Neh. 11:15; 1 Chr. 9:14). (2.) Neh. 3:23. 3:11.

Hashubah - ibid., a descendant of David (1 Chr. 3:20).

Hashum - opulent. (1.) Ezra 2:19; Neh. 7:22. (2.) Stood on Ezra's left hand while he read the law (Neh. 8:4).

Hasrah - poverty, "keeper of the wardrobe," i.e., of the sacerdotal vestments (2 Chr. 34:22); called Harhas 2 Kings 22:14. He was husband of the prophetess Huldah.

Hasupha - uncovered, one of the Nethinim (Ezra 2:43; Neh. 7:46).

Hat - Chald. karb'ela, (Dan. 3:21), properly mantle or pallium. The Revised Version renders it "tunic."

Hatach - verity, one of the eunuchs or chamberlains in the palace of Ahasuerus (Esther 4:5, 6, 9, 10).

Hathath - terror, son of Othniel (1 Chr. 4:13).

Hatipha - captured, one of the Nethinim (Ezra 2:54).

Hatita - exploration, one of the temple porters or janitors (Ezra 2:42). He returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel.

Hatred - among the works of the flesh (Gal. 5:20). Altogether different is the meaning of the word in Deut. 21:15; Matt. 6:24; Luke 14:26; Rom. 9:13, where it denotes only a less degree of love.

Hattush - assembled. (1.) A priest who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:2). (2.) Ezra 8:2. (3.) Neh. 3:10. (4.) Neh. 10:4. (5.) 1 Chr. 3:22.

Hauran - cave-land, mentioned only in Ezek. 47:16, 18. It was one of the ancient divisions of Bashan (q.v.), and lay on the south-east of Gaulanitis or the Jaulan, and on the south of Lejah, extending from the Arnon to the Hieromax. It was the most fertile region in Syria, and to this day abounds in the ruins of towns, many of which have stone doors and massive walls. It retains its ancient name. It was known by the Greeks and Romans as "Auranitis."

Haven - a harbour (Ps. 107:30; Acts 27: 12). The most famous on the coast of Palestine was that of Tyre (Ezek. 27:3). That of Crete, called "Fair Havens," is mentioned Acts 27:8.

Havilah - the sand region. (1.) A land mentioned in Gen. 2:11 rich in gold and bdellium and onyx stone. The question as to the locality of this region has given rise to a great diversity of opinion. It may perhaps be identified with the sandy tract which skirts Babylonia along the whole of its western border, stretching from the lower Euphrates to the mountains of Edom.

(2.) A district in Arabia-Felix. It is uncertain whether the tribe gave its name to this region or derived its name from it, and whether it was originally a Cushite (Gen. 10:7) or a Joktanite tribe (10:29; comp. 25:18), or whether there were both a Cushite and a Joktanite Havilah. It is the opinion of Kalisch, however, that Havilah "in both instances designates the same country, extending at least from the Persian to the Arabian Gulf, and on account of its vast extent easily divided into two distinct parts." This opinion may be well vindicated.

(3.) One of the sons of Cush (Gen. 10:7).

(4.) A son of Joktan (Gen. 10:29; 1 Chr. 1:23).

Havoth-jair - hamlets of the enlightener a district in the east of Jordan. (1.) Jair, the son of Manasseh, took some villages of Gilead and called them by this name (Num. 32:41).

(2.) Again, it is said that Jair "took all the tract of Argob," and called it Bashanhavoth-jair (Deut. 3:14). (See also Josh. 13:30; 1 Kings 4:13; 1 Chr. 2:22, 23.)

Hawk - (Heb. netz, a word expressive of strong and rapid flight, and hence appropriate to the hawk). It is an unclean bird (Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15). It is common in Syria and surrounding countries. The Hebrew word includes various species of Falconidae, with special reference perhaps to the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), the hobby (Hypotriorchis subbuteo), and the lesser kestrel (Tin, Cenchris). The kestrel remains all the year in Palestine, but some ten or twelve other species are all migrants from the south. Of those summer visitors to Palestine special mention may be made of the Falco sacer and the Falco lanarius. (See NIGHT-HAWK ¯T0002729.)

Hay - properly so called, was not in use among the Hebrews; straw was used instead. They cut the grass green as it was needed. The word rendered "hay" in Prov. 27:25 means the first shoots of the grass. In Isa. 15:6 the Revised Version has correctly "grass," where the Authorized Version has "hay."

Hazael - whom God beholds, an officer of Ben-hadad II., king of Syria, who ultimately came to the throne, according to the word of the Lord to Elijah (1 Kings 19:15), after he had put the king to death (2 Kings 8:15). His interview with Elisha is mentioned in 2 Kings 8. The Assyrians soon after his accession to the throne came against him and defeated him with very great loss; and three years afterwards again invaded Syria, but on this occasion Hazael submitted to them. He then turned his arms against Israel, and ravaged "all the land of Gilead," etc. (2 Kings 10:33), which he held in a degree of subjection to him (13:3-7, 22). He aimed at the subjugation also of the kingdom of Judah, when Joash obtained peace by giving him "all the gold that was found in the treasures of the house of the Lord, and in the king's house" (2 Kings 12:18; 2 Chr. 24:24). He reigned about forty-six years (B.C.886-840), and was succeeded on the throne by his son Ben-hadad (2 Kings 13:22-25), who on several occasions was defeated by Jehoash, the king of Israel, and compelled to restore all the land of Israel his father had taken.

Hazar-addar - village of Addar, a place in the southern boundary of Palestine (Num. 34:4), in the desert to the west of Kadesh-barnea. It is called Adar in Josh. 15:3.

Hazar-enan - village of fountains, a place on the north-east frontier of Palestine (Num. 34:9, 10). Some have identified it with Ayan ed-Dara in the heart of the central chain of Anti-Libanus. More probably, however, it has been identified with Kuryetein, about 60 miles east-north-east of Damascus. (Comp. Ezek. 47:17; 48:1.)

Hazar-gaddah - village of fortune, a city on the south border of Judah (Josh. 15:27), midway between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.

Hazar-hatticon - village of the midway, a place near Hamath in the confines of Hauran (Ezek. 47:16), probably on the north brow of Hermon.

Hazar-maveth - court of death, the third son of Joktan, and a region in Arabia-Felix settled by him (Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20). It is probably the modern province of Hadramaut, situated on the Indian Ocean east of the modern Yemen.

Hazar-shual - village or enclosure of the jackal, a city on the south border of Judah (Josh. 15:28; Neh. 11:27). It has been identified with the ruins of Saweh, half-way between Beersheba and Moladah.

Hazar-susah - village of the horse, the same as Sansannah, one of Solomon's "chariot cities" (Josh. 15:31; 2 Chr. 1:14), a depot in the south border of Judah.

Hazel - Heb. luz, (Gen. 30:37), a nutbearing tree. The Hebrew word is rendered in the Vulgate by amygdalinus, "the almond-tree," which is probably correct. That tree flourishes in Syria.

Hazerim - villages, probably the name of the temporary villages in which the nomad Avites resided (Deut. 2:23).

Hazeroth - fenced enclosures consisting of "a low wall of stones in which thick bundles of thorny acacia are inserted, the tangled branches and long needle-like spikes forming a perfectly impenetrable hedge around the encampment" of tents and cattle which they sheltered. Such like enclosures abound in the wilderness of Paran, which the Israelites entered after leaving Sinai (Num. 11:35; 12:16; 33:17, 18). This third encampment of the Israelites has been identified with the modern 'Ain el-Hudhera, some 40 miles north-east of Sinai. Here Miriam (q.v.), being displeased that Moses had married a Cushite wife (Num. 12:1), induced Aaron to join with her in rebelling against Moses. God vindicated the authority of his "servant Moses," and Miriam was smitten with leprosy. Moses interceded for her, and she was healed (Num. 12:4-16). From this encampment the Israelites marched northward across the plateau of et-Tih, and at length reached KADESH.

Hazezon-tamar - pruning of the palm, the original name of the place afterwards called ENGEDI (q.v.), Gen. 14:7; called also HAZAZON-TAMAR (2 Chr. 20:2).

Hazo - vision, one of the sons of Nahor (Gen. 22:22).

Hazor - enclosed; fortified. (1.) A stronghold of the Canaanites in the mountains north of Lake Merom (Josh. 11:1-5). Jabin the king with his allied tribes here encountered Joshua in a great battle. Joshua gained a signal victory, which virtually completed his conquest of Canaan (11:10-13). This city was, however, afterwards rebuilt by the Canaanites, and was ruled by a king with the same hereditary name of Jabin. His army, under a noted leader of the name of Sisera, swept down upon the south, aiming at the complete subjugation of the country. This powerful army was met by the Israelites under Barak, who went forth by the advice of the prophetess Deborah. The result was one of the most remarkable victories for Israel recorded in the Old Testament (Josh. 19:36; Judg. 4:2; 1 Sam. 12:9). The city of Hazor was taken and occupied by the Israelites. It was fortified by Solomon to defend the entrance into the kingdom from Syria and Assyria. When Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian king, invaded the land, this was one of the first cities he captured, carrying its inhabitants captive into Assyria (2 Kings 15:29). It has been identified with Khurbet Harrah, 2 1/2 miles south-east of Kedesh.

(2.) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:23). The name here should probably be connected with the word following, Ithnan, HAZOR-ITHNAN instead of "Hazor and Ithnan."

(3.) A district in Arabia (Jer. 49:28-33), supposed by some to be Jetor, i.e., Ituraea.

(4.) "Kerioth and Hezron" (Josh. 15: 25) should be "Kerioth-hezron" (as in the R.V.), the two names being joined together as the name of one place (e.g., like Kirjath-jearim), "the same is Hazor" (R.V.). This place has been identified with el-Kuryetein, and has been supposed to be the home of Judas Iscariot. (See KERIOTH.)

Hazor-hadattah - New Hazor, a city in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:25). It is probably identified with the ruins of el-Hazzarah, near Beit Jebrin.

Head-bands - (Heb. kishshurim), properly girdles or belts for the waist (Isa. 3:20, R.V., "sashes;" Jer. 2:32, rendered "attire", i.e., a girdle round the waist).

Head-dress - Not in common use among the Hebrews. It is first mentioned in Ex. 28:40 (A.V., "bonnets;" R.V., "head-tires"). It was used especially for purposes of ornament (Job 29:14; Isa. 3:23; 62:3). The Hebrew word here used, tsaniph, properly means a turban, folds of linen wound round the head. The Hebrew word peer, used in Isa. 61:3, there rendered "beauty" (A.V.) and "garland" (R.V.), is a head-dress or turban worn by females (Isa. 3: 20, "bonnets"), priests (Ex. 39:28), a bridegroom (Isa. 61:10, "ornament;" R.V., "garland"). Ezek. 16:10 and Jonah 2:5 are to be understood of the turban wrapped round the head. The Hebrew shebisim (Isa. 3:18), in the Authorized Version rendered "cauls," and marg. "networks," denotes probably a kind of netted head-dress. The "horn" (Heb. keren) mentioned in 1 Sam. 2:1 is the head-dress called by the Druses of Mount Lebanon the tantura.

Heap - When Joshua took the city of Ai (Josh. 8), he burned it and "made it an heap [Heb. tel] for ever" (8:28). The ruins of this city were for a long time sought for in vain. It has been at length, however, identified with the mound which simply bears the name of "Tel." "There are many Tels in modern Palestine, that land of Tels, each Tel with some other name attached to it to mark the former site. But the site of Ai has no other name 'unto this day.' It is simply et-Tel, 'the heap' par excellence."

Heart - According to the Bible, the heart is the centre not only of spiritual activity, but of all the operations of human life. "Heart" and "soul" are often used interchangeably (Deut. 6:5; 26:16; comp. Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30, 33), but this is not generally the case.

The heart is the "home of the personal life," and hence a man is designated, according to his heart, wise (1 Kings 3:12, etc.), pure (Ps. 24:4; Matt. 5:8, etc.), upright and righteous (Gen. 20:5, 6; Ps. 11:2; 78:72), pious and good (Luke 8:15), etc. In these and such passages the word "soul" could not be substituted for "heart."

In Gen. 30:38, 41 the Hebrew word rendered "gutters" is rahat, and denotes vessels overflowing with water for cattle (Ex. 2:16); drinking-troughs.

Habakkuk - embrace, the eighth of the twelve minor prophets. Of his personal history we have no reliable information. He was probably a member of the Levitical choir. He was contemporary with Jeremiah and Zephaniah.

Habakkuk, Prophecies of - were probably written about B.C. 650-627, or, as some think, a few years later. This book consists of three chapters, the contents of which are thus comprehensively described: "When the prophet in spirit saw the formidable power of the Chaldeans approaching and menacing his land, and saw the great evils they would cause in Judea, he bore his complaints and doubts before Jehovah, the just and the pure (1:2-17). And on this occasion the future punishment of the Chaldeans was revealed to him (2). In the third chapter a presentiment of the destruction of his country, in the inspired heart of the prophet, contends with his hope that the enemy would be chastised." The third chapter is a sublime song dedicated "to the chief musician," and therefore intended apparently to be used in the worship of God. It is "unequalled in majesty and splendour of language and imagery."

The passage in 2:4, "The just shall live by his faith," is quoted by the apostle in Rom. 1:17. (Comp. Gal. 3:12; Heb. 10:37, 38.)

Habergeon - an Old English word for breastplate. In Job 41:26 (Heb. shiryah) it is properly a "coat of mail;" the Revised Version has "pointed shaft." In Ex. 28:32, 39:23, it denotes a military garment strongly and thickly woven and covered with mail round the neck and breast. Such linen corselets have been found in Egypt. The word used in these verses is tahra, which is of Egyptian origin. The Revised Version, however, renders it by "coat of mail." (See ARMOUR.)

Habitation - God is the habitation of his people, who find rest and safety in him (Ps. 71:3; 91:9). Justice and judgment are the habitation of God's throne (Ps. 89:14, Heb. mekhon, "foundation"), because all his acts are founded on justice and judgment. (See Ps. 132:5, 13; Eph. 2:22, of Canaan, Jerusalem, and the temple as God's habitation.) God inhabits eternity (Isa. 57:15), i.e., dwells not only among men, but in eternity, where time is unknown; and "the praises of Israel" (Ps. 22:3), i.e., he dwells among those praises and is continually surrounded by them.

Habor - the united stream, or, according to others, with beautiful banks, the name of a river in Assyria, and also of the district through which it flowed (1 Chr. 5:26). There is a river called Khabur which rises in the central highlands of Kurdistan, and flows south-west till it falls into the Tigris, about 70 miles above Mosul. This was not, however, the Habor of Scripture.

There is another river of the same name (the Chaboras) which, after a course of about 200 miles, flows into the Euphrates at Karkesia, the ancient Circesium. This was, there can be little doubt, the ancient Habor.

Hachilah - the darksome hill, one of the peaks of the long ridge of el-Kolah, running out of the Ziph plateau, "on the south of Jeshimon" (i.e., of the "waste"), the district to which one looks down from the plateau of Ziph (1 Sam. 23:19). After his reconciliation with Saul at Engedi (24:1-8), David returned to Hachilah, where he had fixed his quarters. The Ziphites treacherously informed Saul of this, and he immediately (26:1-4) renewed his pursuit of David, and "pitched in the hill of Hachilah." David and his nephew Abishai stole at night into the midst of Saul's camp, when they were all asleep, and noiselessly removed the royal spear and the cruse from the side of the king, and then, crossing the intervening valley to the height on the other side, David cried to the people, and thus awoke the sleepers. He then addressed Saul, who recognized his voice, and expostulated with him. Saul professed to be penitent; but David could not put confidence in him, and he now sought refuge at Ziklag. David and Saul never afterwards met. (1 Sam. 26:13-25).

Hadad - Adod, brave(?), the name of a Syrian god. (1.) An Edomite king who defeated the Midianites (Gen. 36:35; 1 Chr. 1:46).

(2.) Another Edomite king (1 Chr. 1:50, 51), called also Hadar (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:51).

(3.) One of "the king's seed in Edom." He fled into Egypt, where he married the sister of Pharaoh's wife (1 Kings 11:14-22). He became one of Solomon's adversaries.

Hadad, sharp, (a different name in Hebrew from the preceding), one of the sons of Ishmael (1 Chr. 1:30). Called also Hadar (Gen. 25:15).

Hadadezer - Hadad is help; called also Hadarezer, Adod is his help, the king of Zobah. Hanun, the king of the Ammonites, hired among others the army of Hadadezer to assist him in his war against David. Joab, who was sent against this confederate host, found them in double battle array, the Ammonities toward their capital of Rabbah, and the Syrian mercenaries near Medeba. In the battle which was fought the Syrians were scattered, and the Ammonites in alarm fled into their capital. After this Hadadezer went north "to recover his border" (2 Sam. 8:3, A.V.); but rather, as the Revised Version renders, "to recover his dominion", i.e., to recruit his forces. Then followed another battle with the Syrian army thus recruited, which resulted in its being totally routed at Helam (2 Sam. 10:17). Shobach, the leader of the Syrian army, died on the field of battle. The Syrians of Damascus, who had come to help Hadadezer, were also routed, and Damascus was made tributary to David. All the spoils taken in this war, "shields of gold" and "very much brass," from which afterwards the "brasen sea, and the pillars, and the vessels of brass" for the temple were made (1 Chr. 18:8), were brought to Jerusalem and dedicated to Jehovah. Thus the power of the Ammonites and the Syrians was finally broken, and David's empire extended to the Euphrates (2 Sam. 10:15-19; 1 Chr. 19:15-19).

Hadad-rimmon - (composed of the names of two Syrian idols), the name of a place in the valley of Megiddo. It is alluded to by the prophet Zechariah (12:11) in a proverbial expression derived from the lamentation for Josiah, who was mortally wounded near this place (2 Chr. 35:22-25). It has been identified with the modern Rummaneh, a village "at the foot of the Megiddo hills, in a notch or valley about an hour and a half south of Tell Metzellim."

Hadar - Adod, brave(?). (1.) A son of Ishmael (Gen. 25:15); in 1 Chr. 1:30 written Hadad.

(2.) One of the Edomitish kings (Gen. 36:39) about the time of Saul. Called also Hadad (1 Chr. 1:50, 51).

It is probable that in these cases Hadar may be an error simply of transcription for Hadad.

Hadarezer - Adod is his help, the name given to Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8:3-12) in 2 Sam. 10.

Hadashah - new, a city in the valley of Judah (Josh. 15:37).

Hadassah - myrtle, the Jewish name of Esther (q.v.), Esther 2:7.

Hadattah - new, one of the towns in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15:25).

Hades - that which is out of sight, a Greek word used to denote the state or place of the dead. All the dead alike go into this place. To be buried, to go down to the grave, to descend into hades, are equivalent expressions. In the LXX. this word is the usual rendering of the Hebrew sheol, the common receptacle of the departed (Gen. 42:38; Ps. 139:8; Hos. 13:14; Isa. 14:9). This term is of comparatively rare occurrence in the Greek New Testament. Our Lord speaks of Capernaum as being "brought down to hell" (hades), i.e., simply to the lowest debasement, (Matt. 11:23). It is contemplated as a kind of kingdom which could never overturn the foundation of Christ's kingdom (16:18), i.e., Christ's church can never die.

In Luke 16:23 it is most distinctly associated with the doom and misery of the lost.

In Acts 2:27-31 Peter quotes the LXX. version of Ps. 16:8-11, plainly for the purpose of proving our Lord's resurrection from the dead. David was left in the place of the dead, and his body saw corruption. Not so with Christ. According to ancient prophecy (Ps. 30:3) he was recalled to life.

Hadid - pointed, a place in the tribe of Benjamin near Lydda, or Lod, and Ono (Ezra 2:33; Neh. 7:37). It is identified with the modern el-Haditheh, 3 miles east of Lydda.

Hadlai - resting, an Ephraimite; the father of Amasa, mentioned in 2 Chr. 28:12.

Hadoram - is exalted. (1.) The son of Tou, king of Hamath, sent by his father to congratulate David on his victory over Hadarezer, king of Syria (1 Chr. 18:10; called Joram 2 Sam. 8:10).

(2.) The fifth son of Joktan, the founder of an Arab tribe (Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21).

(3.) One who was "over the tribute;" i.e., "over the levy." He was stoned by the Israelites after they had revolted from Rehoboam (2 Chr. 10:18). Called also Adoram (2 Sam. 20:24) and Adoniram (1 Kings 4:6).

Hadrach - the name of a country (Zech. 9:1) which cannot be identified. Rawlinson would identify it with Edessa. He mentions that in the Assyrian inscriptions it is recorded that "Shalmanezer III. made two expeditions, the first against Damascus B.C. 773, and the second against Hadrach B.C. 772; and again that Asshurdanin-il II. made expeditions against Hadrach in B.C. 765 and 755."

Haemorrhoids - or Emerods, bleeding piles known to the ancient Romans as mariscae, but more probably malignant boils of an infectious and fatal character. With this loathsome and infectious disease the men of Ashdod were smitten by the hand of the Lord. This calamity they attributed to the presence of the ark in their midst, and therefore they removed it to Gath (1 Sam. 5:6-8). But the same consequences followed from its presence in Gath, and therefore they had it removed to Ekron, 11 miles distant. The Ekronites were afflicted with the same dreadful malady, but more severely; and a panic seizing the people, they demanded that the ark should be sent back to the land of Israel (9-12; 6:1-9).

Haft - a handle as of a dagger (Judg. 3:22).

Hagar - flight, or, according to others, stranger, an Egyptian, Sarah's handmaid (Gen. 16:1; 21:9, 10), whom she gave to Abraham (q.v.) as a secondary wife (16:2). When she was about to become a mother she fled from the cruelty of her mistress, intending apparently to return to her relatives in Egypt, through the desert of Shur, which lay between. Wearied and worn she had reached the place she distinguished by the name of Beer-lahai-roi ("the well of the visible God"), where the angel of the Lord appeared to her. In obedience to the heavenly visitor she returned to the tent of Abraham, where her son Ishmael was born, and where she remained (16) till after the birth of Isaac, the space of fourteen years. Sarah after this began to vent her dissatisfaction both on Hagar and her child. Ishmael's conduct was insulting to Sarah, and she insisted that he and his mother should be dismissed. This was accordingly done, although with reluctance on the part of Abraham (Gen. 21:14). They wandered out into the wilderness, where Ishmael, exhausted with his journey and faint from thirst, seemed about to die. Hagar "lifted up her voice and wept," and the angel of the Lord, as before, appeared unto her, and she was comforted and delivered out of her distresses (Gen. 21:18, 19).

Ishmael afterwards established himself in the wilderness of Paran, where he married an Egyptian (Gen. 21:20,21).

"Hagar" allegorically represents the Jewish church (Gal. 4:24), in bondage to the ceremonial law; while "Sarah" represents the Christian church, which is free.

Hagarene - or Hagarite. (1.) One of David's mighty men (1 Chr. 11:38), the son of a foreigner.

(2.) Used of Jaziz (1 Chr. 27:31), who was over David's flocks. "A Hagarite had charge of David's flocks, and an Ishmaelite of his herds, because the animals were pastured in districts where these nomadic people were accustomed to feed their cattle."

(3.) In the reign of Saul a great war was waged between the trans-Jordanic tribes and the Hagarites (1 Chr. 5), who were overcome in battle. A great booty was captured by the two tribes and a half, and they took possession of the land of the Hagarites.

Subsequently the "Hagarenes," still residing in the land on the east of Jordan, entered into a conspiracy against Israel (comp. Ps. 83:6). They are distinguished from the Ishmaelites.

Haggai - festive, one of the twelve so-called minor prophets. He was the first of the three (Zechariah, his contemporary, and Malachi, who was about one hundred years later, being the other two) whose ministry belonged to the period of Jewish history which began after the return from captivity in Babylon. Scarcely anything is known of his personal history. He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. He began his ministry about sixteen years after the Return. The work of rebuilding the temple had been put a stop to through the intrigues of the Samaritans. After having been suspended for fifteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:14), who by their exhortations roused the people from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of the favourable opportunity that had arisen in a change in the policy of the Persian government. (See DARIUS ¯T0000975 [2].) Haggai's prophecies have thus been characterized:, "There is a ponderous and simple dignity in the emphatic reiteration addressed alike to every class of the community, prince, priest, and people, 'Be strong, be strong, be strong' (2:4). 'Cleave, stick fast, to the work you have to do;' or again, 'Consider your ways, consider, consider, consider' (1:5, 7;2:15, 18). It is the Hebrew phrase for the endeavour, characteristic of the gifted seers of all times, to compel their hearers to turn the inside of their hearts outwards to their own view, to take the mask from off their consciences, to 'see life steadily, and to see it wholly.'", Stanley's Jewish Church. (See SIGNET.)

Haggai, Book of - consists of two brief, comprehensive chapters. The object of the prophet was generally to urge the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the temple.

Chapter first comprehends the first address (2-11) and its effects (12-15). Chapter second contains,

(1.) The second prophecy (1-9), which was delivered a month after the first.

(2.) The third prophecy (10-19), delivered two months and three days after the second; and

(3.) The fourth prophecy (20-23), delivered on the same day as the third.

These discourses are referred to in Ezra 5:1; 6:14; Heb. 12:26. (Comp. Hag. 2:7, 8, 22.)

Haggith - festive; the dancer, a wife of David and the mother of Adonijah (2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Kings 1:5, 11; 2:13; 1 Chr. 3:2), who, like Absalom, was famed for his beauty.

Hagiographa - the holy writings, a term which came early into use in the Christian church to denote the third division of the Old Testament scriptures, called by the Jews Kethubim, i.e., "Writings." It consisted of five books, viz., Job, Proverbs, and Psalms, and the two books of Chronicles. The ancient Jews classified their sacred books as the Law, the Prophets, and the Kethubim, or Writings. (See BIBLE.)

In the New Testament (Luke 24:44) we find three corresponding divisions, viz., the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms.

Hail! - a salutation expressive of a wish for the welfare of the person addressed; the translation of the Greek Chaire, "Rejoice" (Luke 1:8). Used in mockery in Matt. 27:29.

Hail - frozen rain-drops; one of the plagues of Egypt (Ex. 9:23). It is mentioned by Haggai as a divine judgment (Hag. 2:17). A hail-storm destroyed the army of the Amorites when they fought against Joshua (Josh. 10:11). Ezekiel represents the wall daubed with untempered mortar as destroyed by great hail-stones (Ezek. 13:11). (See also 38:22; Rev. 8:7; 11:19; 16:21.)

Hair - (1.) The Egyptians let the hair of their head and beard grow only when they were in mourning, shaving it off at other times. "So particular were they on this point that to have neglected it was a subject of reproach and ridicule; and whenever they intended to convey the idea of a man of low condition, or a slovenly person, the artists represented him with a beard." Joseph shaved himself before going in to Pharoah (Gen. 41:14). The women of Egypt wore their hair long and plaited. Wigs were worn by priests and laymen to cover the shaven skull, and false beards were common. The great masses of hair seen in the portraits and statues of kings and priests are thus altogether artificial.

(2.) A precisely opposite practice, as regards men, prevailed among the Assyrians. In Assyrian sculptures the hair always appears long, and combed closely down upon the head. The beard also was allowed to grow to its full length.

(3.) Among the Greeks the custom in this respect varied at different times, as it did also among the Romans. In the time of the apostle, among the Greeks the men wore short hair, while that of the women was long (1 Cor. 11:14, 15). Paul reproves the Corinthians for falling in with a style of manners which so far confounded the distinction of the sexes and was hurtful to good morals. (See, however, 1 Tim. 2:9, and 1 Pet. 3:3, as regards women.)

(4.) Among the Hebrews the natural distinction between the sexes was preserved by the women wearing long hair (Luke 7:38; John 11:2; 1 Cor. 11:6), while the men preserved theirs as a rule at a moderate length by frequent clipping.

Baldness disqualified any one for the priest's office (Lev. 21).

Elijah is called a "hairy man" (2 Kings 1:8) from his flowing locks, or more probably from the shaggy cloak of hair which he wore. His raiment was of camel's hair.

Long hair is especially noticed in the description of Absalom's person (2 Sam. 14:26); but the wearing of long hair was unusual, and was only practised as an act of religious observance by Nazarites (Num. 6:5; Judg. 13:5) and others in token of special mercies (Acts 18:18).

In times of affliction the hair was cut off (Isa. 3:17, 24; 15:2; 22:12; Jer. 7:29; Amos 8:10). Tearing the hair and letting it go dishevelled were also tokens of grief (Ezra 9:3). "Cutting off the hair" is a figure of the entire destruction of a people (Isa. 7:20). The Hebrews anointed the hair profusely with fragrant ointments (Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 23:5; 45:7, etc.), especially in seasons of rejoicing (Matt. 6:17; Luke 7:46).

Hakkoz - the thorn, the head of one of the courses of the priests (1 Chr. 24:10).

Halah - a district of Media to which captive Israelites were transported by the Assyrian kings (2 Kings 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr. 5:26). It lay along the banks of the upper Khabur, from its source to its junction with the Jerujer. Probably the district called by Ptolemy Chalcitis.

Halak - smooth; bald, a hill at the southern extremity of Canaan (Josh. 11:17). It is referred to as if it were a landmark in that direction, being prominent and conspicuous from a distance. It has by some been identified with the modern Jebel el-Madura, on the south frontier of Judah, between the south end of the Dead Sea and the Wady Gaian.

Halhul - full of hollows, a town in the highlands of Judah (Josh. 15:58). It is now a small village of the same name, and is situated about 5 miles north-east of Hebron on the way to Jerusalem. There is an old Jewish tradition that Gad, David's seer (2 Sam. 24:11), was buried here.

Hall - (Gr. aule, Luke 22:55; R.V., "court"), the open court or quadrangle belonging to the high priest's house. In Matt. 26:69 and Mark 14:66 this word is incorrectly rendered "palace" in the Authorized Version, but correctly "court" in the Revised Version. In John 10:1,16 it means a "sheep-fold." In Matt. 27:27 and Mark 15:16 (A.V., "common hall;" R.V., "palace") it refers to the proetorium or residence of the Roman governor at Jerusalem. The "porch" in Matt. 26:71 is the entrance-hall or passage leading into the central court, which is open to the sky.

Hallel - praise, the name given to the group of Psalms 113-118, which are preeminently psalms of praise. It is called "The Egyptian Hallel," because it was chanted in the temple whilst the Passover lambs were being slain. It was chanted also on other festival occasions, as at Pentecost, the feast of Tabernacles, and the feast of Dedication. The Levites, standing before the altar, chanted it verse by verse, the people responding by repeating the verses or by intoned hallelujahs. It was also chanted in private families at the feast of Passover. This was probably the hymn which our Saviour and his disciples sung at the conclusion of the Passover supper kept by them in the upper room at Jerusalem (Matt. 26:30; Mark 14:26).

There is also another group called "The Great Hallel," comprehending Psalms 118-136, which was recited on the first evening at the Passover supper and on occasions of great joy.

Hallelujah - praise ye Jehovah, frequently rendered "Praise ye the LORD," stands at the beginning of ten of the psalms (106, 111-113, 135, 146-150), hence called "hallelujah psalms." From its frequent occurrence it grew into a formula of praise. The Greek form of the word (alleluia) is found in Rev. 19:1, 3, 4, 6.

Hallow - to render sacred, to consecrate (Ex. 28:38; 29:1). This word is from the Saxon, and properly means "to make holy." The name of God is "hallowed", i.e., is reverenced as holy (Matt. 6:9).

The heart is also the seat of the conscience (Rom. 2:15). It is naturally wicked (Gen. 8:21), and hence it contaminates the whole life and character (Matt. 12:34; 15:18; comp. Eccl. 8:11; Ps. 73:7). Hence the heart must be changed, regenerated (Ezek. 36:26; 11:19; Ps. 51:10-14), before a man can willingly obey God.

The process of salvation begins in the heart by the believing reception of the testimony of God, while the rejection of that testimony hardens the heart (Ps. 95:8; Prov. 28:14; 2 Chr. 36:13). "Hardness of heart evidences itself by light views of sin; partial acknowledgment and confession of it; pride and conceit; ingratitude; unconcern about the word and ordinances of God; inattention to divine providences; stifling convictions of conscience; shunning reproof; presumption, and general ignorance of divine things."

Hearth - Heb. ah (Jer. 36:22, 23; R.V., "brazier"), meaning a large pot like a brazier, a portable furnace in which fire was kept in the king's winter apartment.

Heb. kiyor (Zech. 12:6; R.V., "pan"), a fire-pan.

Heb. moqed (Ps. 102:3; R.V., "fire-brand"), properly a fagot.

Heb. yaqud (Isa. 30:14), a burning mass on a hearth.

He-ass - Heb. hamor, (Gen. 12:16), the general designation of the donkey used for carrying burdens (Gen. 42:26) and for ploughing (Isa. 30:24). It is described in Gen. 49:14, 2 Sam. 19:26. (See ASS.)

Heath - Heb. 'arar, (Jer. 17:6; 48:6), a species of juniper called by the Arabs by the same name ('arar), the Juniperus sabina or savin. "Its gloomy, stunted appearance, with its scale-like leaves pressed close to its gnarled stem, and cropped close by the wild goats, as it clings to the rocks about Petra, gives great force to the contrast suggested by the prophet, between him that trusteth in man, naked and destitute, and the man that trusteth in the Lord, flourishing as a tree planted by the waters" (Tristram, Natural History of the Bible).

Heathen - (Heb. plural goyum). At first the word goyim denoted generally all the nations of the world (Gen. 18:18; comp. Gal. 3:8). The Jews afterwards became a people distinguished in a marked manner from the other goyim. They were a separate people (Lev. 20:23; 26:14-45; Deut. 28), and the other nations, the Amorites, Hittites, etc., were the goyim, the heathen, with whom the Jews were forbidden to be associated in any way (Josh. 23:7; 1 Kings 11:2). The practice of idolatry was the characteristic of these nations, and hence the word came to designate idolaters (Ps. 106:47; Jer. 46:28; Lam. 1:3; Isa. 36:18), the wicked (Ps. 9:5, 15, 17).

The corresponding Greek word in the New Testament, ethne, has similar shades of meaning. In Acts 22:21, Gal. 3:14, it denotes the people of the earth generally; and in Matt. 6:7, an idolater. In modern usage the word denotes all nations that are strangers to revealed religion.

Heaven - (1.) Definitions. The phrase "heaven and earth" is used to indicate the whole universe (Gen. 1:1; Jer. 23:24; Acts 17:24). According to the Jewish notion there were three heavens,

(a) The firmament, as "fowls of the heaven" (Gen. 2:19; 7:3, 23; Ps. 8:8, etc.), "the eagles of heaven" (Lam. 4:19), etc.

(b) The starry heavens (Deut. 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Matt. 24:29).

(2.) Meaning of words in the original,

(a) The usual Hebrew word for "heavens" is shamayim, a plural form meaning "heights," "elevations" (Gen. 1:1; 2:1).

(b) The Hebrew word marom is also used (Ps. 68:18; 93:4; 102:19, etc.) as equivalent to shamayim, "high places," "heights."

(d) Heb. shahak, rendered "sky" (Deut. 33:26; Job 37:18; Ps. 18:11), plural "clouds" (Job 35:5; 36:28; Ps. 68:34, marg. "heavens"), means probably the firmament.

(e) Heb. rakia is closely connected with (d), and is rendered "firmamentum" in the Vulgate, whence our "firmament" (Gen. 1:6; Deut. 33:26, etc.), regarded as a solid expanse.

(3.) Metaphorical meaning of term. Isa. 14:13, 14; "doors of heaven" (Ps. 78:23); heaven "shut" (1 Kings 8:35); "opened" (Ezek. 1:1). (See 1 Chr. 21:16.)

(4.) Spiritual meaning. The place of the everlasting blessedness of the righteous; the abode of departed spirits.

(a) Christ calls it his "Father's house" (John 14:2).

(b) It is called "paradise" (Luke 23:43; 2 Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2:7).

(d) The "kingdom of heaven" (Matt. 25:1; James 2:5).

(e) The "eternal kingdom" (2 Pet. 1:11).

(f) The "eternal inheritance" (1 Pet. 1:4; Heb. 9:15).

(g) The "better country" (Heb. 11:14, 16).

(h) The blessed are said to "sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob," and to be "in Abraham's bosom" (Luke 16:22; Matt. 8:11); to "reign with Christ" (2 Tim. 2:12); and to enjoy "rest" (Heb. 4:10, 11).

In heaven the blessedness of the righteous consists in the possession of "life everlasting," "an eternal weight of glory" (2 Cor. 4:17), an exemption from all sufferings for ever, a deliverance from all evils (2 Cor. 5:1, 2) and from the society of the wicked (2 Tim. 4:18), bliss without termination, the "fulness of joy" for ever (Luke 20:36; 2 Cor. 4:16, 18; 1 Pet. 1:4; 5:10; 1 John 3:2). The believer's heaven is not only a state of everlasting blessedness, but also a "place", a place "prepared" for them (John 14:2).

Heave offering - Heb. terumah, (Ex. 29:27) means simply an offering, a present, including all the offerings made by the Israelites as a present. This Hebrew word is frequently employed. Some of the rabbis attach to the word the meaning of elevation, and refer it to the heave offering, which consisted in presenting the offering by a motion up and down, distinguished from the wave offering, which consisted in a repeated movement in a horizontal direction, a "wave offering to the Lord as ruler of earth, a heave offering to the Lord as ruler of heaven." The right shoulder, which fell to the priests in presenting thank offerings, was called the heave shoulder (Lev. 7:34; Num. 6:20). The first fruits offered in harvest-time (Num. 15:20, 21) were heave offerings.

Heber - passing over. (1.) Son of Beriah and grandson of Asher (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chr. 7:31, 32).

(2.) The Kenite (Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24), a descendant of Hobab. His wife Jael received Sisera (q.v.) into her tent and then killed him.

(3.) 1 Chr. 4:18.

(4.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:17).

(5.) A Gadite (5:13). (See EBER.)

Hebrew - a name applied to the Israelites in Scripture only by one who is a foreigner (Gen. 39:14, 17; 41:12, etc.), or by the Israelites when they speak of themselves to foreigners (40:15; Ex. 1:19), or when spoken of an contrasted with other peoples (Gen. 43:32; Ex. 1:3, 7, 15; Deut. 15:12). In the New Testament there is the same contrast between Hebrews and foreigners (Acts 6:1; Phil. 3:5).

Derivation. (1.) The name is derived, according to some, from Eber (Gen. 10:24), the ancestor of Abraham. The Hebrews are "sons of Eber" (10:21).

(2.) Others trace the name of a Hebrew root-word signifying "to pass over," and hence regard it as meaning "the man who passed over," viz., the Euphrates; or to the Hebrew word meaning "the region" or "country beyond," viz., the land of Chaldea. This latter view is preferred. It is the more probable origin of the designation given to Abraham coming among the Canaanites as a man from beyond the Euphrates (Gen. 14:13).

(3.) A third derivation of the word has been suggested, viz., that it is from the Hebrew word 'abhar, "to pass over," whence 'ebher, in the sense of a "sojourner" or "passer through" as distinct from a "settler" in the land, and thus applies to the condition of Abraham (Heb. 11:13).

Hebrew language - the language of the Hebrew nation, and that in which the Old Testament is written, with the exception of a few portions in Chaldee. In the Old Testament it is only spoken of as "Jewish" (2 Kings 18:26, 28; Isa. 36:11, 13; 2 Chr 32:18). This name is first used by the Jews in times subsequent to the close of the Old Testament.

It is one of the class of languages called Semitic, because they were chiefly spoken among the descendants of Shem.

When Abraham entered Canaan it is obvious that he found the language of its inhabitants closely allied to his own. Isaiah (19:18) calls it "the language of Canaan." Whether this language, as seen in the earliest books of the Old Testament, was the very dialect which Abraham brought with him into Canaan, or whether it was the common tongue of the Canaanitish nations which he only adopted, is uncertain; probably the latter opinion is the correct one. For the thousand years between Moses and the Babylonian exile the Hebrew language underwent little or no modification. It preserves all through a remarkable uniformity of structure. From the first it appears in its full maturity of development. But through intercourse with Damascus, Assyria, and Babylon, from the time of David, and more particularly from the period of the Exile, it comes under the influence of the Aramaic idiom, and this is seen in the writings which date from this period. It was never spoken in its purity by the Jews after their return from Babylon. They now spoke Hebrew with a large admixture of Aramaic or Chaldee, which latterly became the predominant element in the national language.

The Hebrew of the Old Testament has only about six thousand words, all derived from about five hundred roots. Hence the same word has sometimes a great variety of meanings. So long as it was a living language, and for ages after, only the consonants of the words were written. This also has been a source of difficulty in interpreting certain words, for the meaning varies according to the vowels which may be supplied. The Hebrew is one of the oldest languages of which we have any knowledge. It is essentially identical with the Phoenician language. (See MOABITE STONE.) The Semitic languages, to which class the Hebrew and Phoenician belonged, were spoken over a very wide area: in Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Arabia, in all the countries from the Mediterranean to the borders of Assyria, and from the mountains of Armenia to the Indian Ocean. The rounded form of the letters, as seen in the Moabite stone, was probably that in which the ancient Hebrew was written down to the time of the Exile, when the present square or Chaldean form was adopted.

Hebrew of the Hebrews - one whose parents are both Hebrews (Phil. 3:5; 2 Cor. 11:22); a genuine Hebrew.

Hebrews - (Acts 6:1) were the Hebrew-speaking Jews, as distinguished from those who spoke Greek. (See GREEKS.)

Hebrews, Epistle to - (1.) Its canonicity. All the results of critical and historical research to which this epistle has been specially subjected abundantly vindicate its right to a place in the New Testament canon among the other inspired books.

(2.) Its authorship. A considerable variety of opinions on this subject has at different times been advanced. Some have maintained that its author was Silas, Paul's companion. Others have attributed it to Clement of Rome, or Luke, or Barnabas, or some unknown Alexandrian Christian, or Apollos; but the conclusion which we think is best supported, both from internal and external evidence, is that Paul was its author. There are, no doubt, many difficulties in the way of accepting it as Paul's; but we may at least argue with Calvin that there can be no difficulty in the way of "embracing it without controversy as one of the apostolical epistles."

(3.) Date and place of writing. It was in all probability written at Rome, near the close of Paul's two years' imprisonment (Heb. 13:19,24). It was certainly written before the destruction of Jerusalem (13:10).

(4.) To whom addressed. Plainly it was intended for Jewish converts to the faith of the gospel, probably for the church at Jerusalem. The subscription of this epistle is, of course, without authority. In this case it is incorrect, for obviously Timothy could not be the bearer of it (13:23).

(5.) Its design was to show the true end and meaning of the Mosaic system, and its symbolical and transient character. It proves that the Levitical priesthood was a "shadow" of that of Christ, and that the legal sacrifices prefigured the great and all-perfect sacrifice he offered for us. It explains that the gospel was designed, not to modify the law of Moses, but to supersede and abolish it. Its teaching was fitted, as it was designed, to check that tendency to apostatize from Christianity and to return to Judaism which now showed itself among certain Jewish Christians. The supreme authority and the transcendent glory of the gospel are clearly set forth, and in such a way as to strengthen and confirm their allegiance to Christ.

(6.) It consists of two parts: (a) doctrinal (1-10:18), (b) and practical (10:19-ch. 13). There are found in it many references to portions of the Old Testament. It may be regarded as a treatise supplementary to the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, and as an inspired commentary on the book of Leviticus.

Hebron - a community; alliance. (1.) A city in the south end of the valley of Eshcol, about midway between Jerusalem and Beersheba, from which it is distant about 20 miles in a straight line. It was built "seven years before Zoan in Egypt" (Gen. 13:18; Num. 13:22). It still exists under the same name, and is one of the most ancient cities in the world. Its earlier name was Kirjath-arba (Gen. 23:2; Josh. 14:15; 15:3). But "Hebron would appear to have been the original name of the city, and it was not till after Abraham's stay there that it received the name Kirjath-arba, who [i.e., Arba] was not the founder but the conqueror of the city, having led thither the tribe of the Anakim, to which he belonged. It retained this name till it came into the possession of Caleb, when the Israelites restored the original name Hebron" (Keil, Com.). The name of this city does not occur in any of the prophets or in the New Testament. It is found about forty times in the Old. It was the favorite home of Abraham. Here he pitched his tent under the oaks of Mamre, by which name it came afterwards to be known; and here Sarah died, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23:17-20), which he bought from Ephron the Hittite. From this place the patriarch departed for Egypt by way of Beersheba (37:14; 46:1). It was taken by Joshua and given to Caleb (Josh. 10:36, 37; 12:10; 14:13). It became a Levitical city and a city of refuge (20:7; 21:11). When David became king of Judah this was his royal residence, and he resided here for seven and a half years (2 Sam. 5:5); and here he was anointed as king over all Israel (2 Sam. 2:1-4, 11; 1 Kings 2:11). It became the residence also of the rebellious Absalom (2 Sam. 15:10), who probably expected to find his chief support in the tribe of Judah, now called el-Khulil.

In one part of the modern city is a great mosque, which is built over the grave of Machpelah. The first European who was permitted to enter this mosque was the Prince of Wales in 1862. It was also visited by the Marquis of Bute in 1866, and by the late Emperor Frederick of Germany (then Crown-Prince of Prussia) in 1869.

One of the largest oaks in Palestine is found in the valley of Eshcol, about 3 miles north of the town. It is supposed by some to be the tree under which Abraham pitched his tent, and is called "Abraham's oak." (See OAK.)

(2.) The third son of Kohath the Levite (Ex. 6:18; 1 Chr. 6:2, 18).

(3.) 1 Chr. 2:42, 43.

(4.) A town in the north border of Asher (Josh. 19:28).

Hegai - eunuch, had charge of the harem of Ahasuerus (Esther 2:8).

Heifer - Heb. 'eglah, (Deut. 21:4, 6; Jer. 46:20). Untrained to the yoke (Hos. 10:11); giving milk (Isa. 7:21); ploughing (Judg. 14:18); treading out grain (Jer. 50:11); unsubdued to the yoke an emblem of Judah (Isa. 15:5; Jer. 48:34).

Heb. parah (Gen. 41:2; Num. 19:2). Bearing the yoke (Hos. 4:16); "heifers of Bashan" (Amos 4:1), metaphorical for the voluptuous females of Samaria. The ordinance of sacrifice of the "red heifer" described in Num. 19:1-10; comp. Heb. 9:13.

Heir - Under the patriarchs the property of a father was divided among the sons of his legitimate wives (Gen. 21:10; 24:36; 25:5), the eldest son getting a larger portion than the rest. The Mosaic law made specific regulations regarding the transmission of real property, which are given in detail in Deut. 21:17; Num. 27:8; 36:6; 27:9-11. Succession to property was a matter of right and not of favour. Christ is the "heir of all things" (Heb. 1:2; Col. 1:15). Believers are heirs of the "promise," "of righteousness," "of the kingdom," "of the world," "of God," "joint heirs" with Christ (Gal 3:29; Heb. 6:17; 11:7; James 2:5; Rom. 4:13; 8:17).

Helah - rust, (1 Chr. 4:5, 7), one of the wives of Ashur.

Helam - place of abundance, a place on the east of Jordan and west of the Euphrates where David gained a great victory over the Syrian army (2 Sam. 10:16), which was under the command of Shobach. Some would identify it with Alamatta, near Nicephorium.

Helbah - fatness, a town of the tribe of Asher (Judg. 1:31), in the plain of Phoenicia.

Helbon - fat; i.e., "fertile", (Ezek. 27: 18 only), a place whence wine was brought to the great market of Tyre. It has been usually identified with the modern Aleppo, called Haleb by the native Arabs, but is more probably to be found in one of the villages in the Wady Helbon, which is celebrated for its grapes, on the east slope of Anti-Lebanon, north of the river Barada (Abana).

Heldai - wordly. (1.) 1 Chr. 27:15; called also Heleb (2 Sam. 23:29); one of David's captains.

(2.) Zech. 6:10, one who returned from Babylon.

Heleb - fatness, one of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23:29).

Heled - this world, (1 Chr. 11:30); called Heleb (2 Sam. 23:29).

Helek - a portion, (Josh. 17:2), descended from Manasseh.

Helem - a stroke, great-grandson of Asher (1 Chr. 7:35).

Heleph - exchange, a city on the north border of Naphtali (Josh. 19:33).

Helez - strong, or loin (?) (1.) One of Judah's posterity (1 Chr. 2:39).

(2.) One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 23:26).

Heli - elevation, father of Joseph in the line of our Lord's ancestry (Luke 3:23).

Helkai - smooth-tongued, one of the chief priests in the time of Joiakim (Neh. 12:15).

Helkath - smoothness, a town of Asher, on the east border (Josh. 19:25; 21:31); called also Hukok (1 Chr. 6:75).

Helkath-hazzurim - plot of the sharp blades, or the field of heroes, (2 Sam. 2:16). After the battle of Gilboa, so fatal to Saul and his house, David, as divinely directed, took up his residence in Hebron, and was there anointed king over Judah. Among the fugitives from Gilboa was Ish-bosheth, the only surviving son of Saul, whom Abner, Saul's uncle, took across the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there had him proclaimed king. Abner gathered all the forces at his command and marched to Gibeon, with the object of wresting Judah from David. Joab had the command of David's army of trained men, who encamped on the south of the pool, which was on the east of the hill on which the town of Gibeon was built, while Abner's army lay on the north of the pool. Abner proposed that the conflict should be decided by twelve young men engaging in personal combat on either side. So fiercely did they encounter each other that "they caught every man his fellow by the head, and thrust his sword in his fellow's side; so they fell down together: wherefore that place was called Helkath-hazzurim." The combat of the champions was thus indecisive, and there followed a severe general engagement between the two armies, ending in the total rout of the Israelites under Abner. The general result of this battle was that "David waxed stronger and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker" (2 Sam. 3:1). (See GIBEON.)

Hell - derived from the Saxon helan, to cover; hence the covered or the invisible place. In Scripture there are three words so rendered:

(1.) Sheol, occurring in the Old Testament sixty-five times. This word sheol is derived from a root-word meaning "to ask," "demand;" hence insatiableness (Prov. 30:15, 16). It is rendered "grave" thirty-one times (Gen. 37:35; 42:38; 44:29, 31; 1 Sam. 2:6, etc.). The Revisers have retained this rendering in the historical books with the original word in the margin, while in the poetical books they have reversed this rule.

In thirty-one cases in the Authorized Version this word is rendered "hell," the place of disembodied spirits. The inhabitants of sheol are "the congregation of the dead" (Prov. 21:16). It is (a) the abode of the wicked (Num. 16:33; Job 24:19; Ps. 9:17; 31:17, etc.); (b) of the good (Ps. 16:10; 30:3; 49:15; 86:13, etc.).

Sheol is described as deep (Job 11:8), dark (10:21, 22), with bars (17:16). The dead "go down" to it (Num. 16:30, 33; Ezek. 31:15, 16, 17).

(2.) The Greek word hades of the New Testament has the same scope of signification as sheol of the Old Testament. It is a prison (1 Pet. 3:19), with gates and bars and locks (Matt. 16:18; Rev. 1:18), and it is downward (Matt. 11:23; Luke 10:15).

The righteous and the wicked are separated. The blessed dead are in that part of hades called paradise (Luke 23:43). They are also said to be in Abraham's bosom (Luke 16:22).

(3.) Gehenna, in most of its occurrences in the Greek New Testament, designates the place of the lost (Matt. 23:33). The fearful nature of their condition there is described in various figurative expressions (Matt. 8:12; 13:42; 22:13; 25:30; Luke 16:24, etc.). (See HINNOM.)

Helmet - (Heb. kob'a), a cap for the defence of the head (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In the New Testament the Greek equivalent is used (Eph. 6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8). (See ARMS.)

Helon - strong, father of Eliab, who was "captain of the children of Zebulun" (Num. 1:9; 2:7).

Help-meet - (Heb. 'ezer ke-negdo; i.e., "a help as his counterpart" = a help suitable to him), a wife (Gen. 2:18-20).

Helps - (1 Cor. 12:28) may refer to help (i.e., by interpretation) given to him who speaks with tongues, or more probably simply help which Christians can render to one another, such as caring for the poor and needy, etc.

Hem - of a garment, the fringe of a garment. The Jews attached much importance to these, because of the regulations in Num. 15:38, 39. These borders or fringes were in process of time enlarged so as to attract special notice (Matt. 23:5). The hem of Christ's garment touched (9:20; 14:36; Luke 8:44).

Heman - faithful. (1.) 1 Kings 4:31; 1 Chr. 2:6, a son of Zerah, noted for his wisdom. (2.) Grandson of Samuel (1 Chr. 6:33; 15:17), to whom the 88th Psalm probably was inscribed. He was one of the "seers" named in 2 Chr. 29:14, 30, and took a leading part in the administration of the sacred services.

Hemath - a Kenite (1 Chr. 2:55), the father of the house of Rechab.

Hemlock - (1.) Heb. rosh (Hos. 10:4; rendered "gall" in Deut. 29:18; 32:32; Ps. 69:21; Jer. 9:15; 23:15; "poison," Job 20:16; "venom," Deut. 32:33). "Rosh is the name of some poisonous plant which grows quickly and luxuriantly; of a bitter taste, and therefore coupled with wormwood (Deut. 29:18; Lam. 3:19). Hence it would seem to be not the hemlock cicuta, nor the colocynth or wild gourd, nor lolium darnel, but the poppy so called from its heads" (Gesenius, Lex.).

(2.) Heb. la'anah, generally rendered "wormwood" (q.v.), Deut. 29:18, Text 17; Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. Once it is rendered "hemlock" (Amos 6:12; R.V., "wormwood"). This Hebrew word is from a root meaning "to curse," hence the accursed.

Hen - common in later times among the Jews in Palestine (Matt. 23:37; Luke 13:34). It is noticeable that this familiar bird is only mentioned in these passages in connection with our Lord's lamentation over the impenitence of Jerusalem.

Hena - one of the cities of Mesopotamia destroyed by sennacherib (2 Kings 18:34; 19:13). It is identified with the modern Anah, lying on the right bank of the Euphrates, not far from Sepharvaim.

Henadad - favour of Hadad, the name of a Levite after the Captivity (Ezra 3:9).

Henoch - See ENOCH.

Hepher - a well or stream. (1.) A royal city of the Canaanites taken by Joshua (12:17).

(2.) The youngest son of Gilead (Num. 26:32; 27:1).

(3.) The second son of Asher (1 Chr. 4:6).

(4.) One of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:36).

Hephzibah - my delight is in her. (1.) The wife of Hezekiah and mother of king Manasseh (2 Kings 21:1).

(2.) A symbolical name of Zion, as representing the Lord's favour toward her (Isa. 62:4).

Herb - (1.) Heb. 'eseb, any green plant; herbage (Gen. 1:11, 12, 29, 30; 2:5; 3:18, etc.); comprehending vegetables and all green herbage (Amos 7:1, 2).

(2.) Yarak, green; any green thing; foliage of trees (2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2); a plant; herb (Deut. 11:10).

(3.) Or, meaning "light" In Isa. 26:19 it means "green herbs;" in 2 Kings 4:39 probably the fruit of some plant.

(4.) Merorim, plural, "bitter herbs," eaten by the Israelites at the Passover (Ex. 12:8; Num. 9:11). They were bitter plants of various sorts, and referred symbolically to the oppression in Egypt.

Herd - Gen. 13:5; Deut. 7:14. (See CATTLE.)

Herdsman - In Egypt herdsmen were probably of the lowest caste. Some of Joseph's brethren were made rulers over Pharaoh's cattle (Gen. 47:6, 17). The Israelites were known in Egypt as "keepers of cattle;" and when they left it they took their flocks and herds with them (Ex. 12:38). Both David and Saul came from "following the herd" to occupy the throne (1 Sam. 9; 11:5; Ps. 78:70). David's herd-masters were among his chief officers of state. The daughters also of wealthy chiefs were wont to tend the flocks of the family (Gen. 29:9; Ex. 2:16). The "chief of the herdsmen" was in the time of the monarchy an officer of high rank (1 Sam. 21:7; comp. 1 Chr. 27:29). The herdsmen lived in tents (Isa. 38:12; Jer. 6:3); and there were folds for the cattle (Num. 32:16), and watch-towers for the herdsmen, that he might therefrom observe any coming danger (Micah 4:8; Nah. 3:8).

Heres - sun. (1.) "Mount Heres" (Judg. 1:35), Heb. Har-heres, i.e., "sun-mountain;" probably identical with Irshemesh in Josh. 19:41.

(2.) Isa. 19:18, marg. (See ON.)

Heresy - from a Greek word signifying (1) a choice, (2) the opinion chosen, and (3) the sect holding the opinion. In the Acts of the Apostles (5:17; 15:5; 24:5, 14; 26:5) it denotes a sect, without reference to its character. Elsewhere, however, in the New Testament it has a different meaning attached to it. Paul ranks "heresies" with crimes and seditions (Gal. 5:20). This word also denotes divisions or schisms in the church (1 Cor. 11:19). In Titus 3:10 a "heretical person" is one who follows his own self-willed "questions," and who is to be avoided. Heresies thus came to signify self-chosen doctrines not emanating from God (2 Pet. 2:1).

Hermas - Mercury, a Roman Christian to whom Paul sends greetings (Rom. 16: 14). Some suppose him to have been the author of the celebrated religious romance called The Shepherd, but it is very probable that that work is the production of a later generation.

Hermes - Mercury, a Roman Christian (Rom. 16:14).

Hermogenes - Mercury-born, at one time Paul's fellow-labourer in Asia Minor, who, however, afterwards abandoned him, along with one Phygellus, probably on account of the perils by which they were beset (2 Tim. 1:15).

Hermon - a peak, the eastern prolongation of the Anti-Lebanon range, reaching to the height of about 9,200 feet above the Mediterranean. It marks the north boundary of Palestine (Deut. 3:8, 4:48; Josh. 11:3, 17; 13:11; 12:1), and is seen from a great distance. It is about 40 miles north of the Sea of Galilee. It is called "the Hermonites" (Ps. 42:6) because it has more than one summit. The Sidonians called it Sirion, and the Amorites Shenir (Deut. 3:9; Cant. 4:8). It is also called Baal-hermon (Judg. 3:3; 1 Chr. 5:23) and Sion (Deut. 4:48). There is every probability that one of its three summits was the scene of the transfiguration (q.v.). The "dew of Hermon" is referred to (Ps. 89: 12). Its modern name is Jebel-esh-Sheikh, "the chief mountain." It is one of the most conspicuous mountains in Palestine or Syria. "In whatever part of Palestine the Israelite turned his eye northward, Hermon was there, terminating the view. From the plain along the coast, from the Jordan valley, from the heights of Moab and Gilead, from the plateau of Bashan, the pale, blue, snow-capped cone forms the one feature in the northern horizon."

Our Lord and his disciples climbed this "high mountain apart" one day, and remained on its summit all night, "weary after their long and toilsome ascent." During the night "he was transfigured before them; and his face did shine as the sun." The next day they descended to Caesarea Philippi.

Hermonites, the - (Ps. 42:6, 7) = "the Hermons", i.e., the three peaks or summits of Hermon, which are about a quarter of a mile apart.

Herod Agrippa I. - son of Aristobulus and Bernice, and grandson of Herod the Great. He was made tetrarch of the provinces formerly held by Lysanias II., and ultimately possessed the entire kingdom of his grandfather, Herod the Great, with the title of king. He put the apostle James the elder to death, and cast Peter into prison (Luke 3:1; Acts 12:1-19). On the second day of a festival held in honour of the emperor Claudius, he appeared in the great theatre of Caesarea. "The king came in clothed in magnificent robes, of which silver was the costly brilliant material. It was early in the day, and the sun's rays fell on the king, so that the eyes of the beholders were dazzled with the brightness which surrounded him. Voices here and there from the crowd exclaimed that it was the apparition of something divine. And when he spoke and made an oration to them, they gave a shout, saying, 'It is the voice of a god, and not of a man.' But in the midst of this idolatrous ostentation an angel of God suddenly smote him. He was carried out of the theatre a dying man." He died (A.D. 44) of the same loathsome malady which slew his grandfather (Acts. 12:21-23), in the fifty-fourth year of his age, having reigned four years as tetrarch and three as king over the whole of Palestine. After his death his kingdom came under the control of the prefect of Syria, and Palestine was now fully incorporated with the empire.

Herod Antipas - Herod's son by Malthace (Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:1, 19; 9:7; Acts 13:1). (See ANTIPAS.)

Herod Archelaus - (Matt. 2:22), the brother of Antipas (q.v.).

Herod Arippa II. - the son of Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros. The emperor Claudius made him tetrarch of the provinces of Philip and Lysanias, with the title of king (Acts 25:13; 26:2, 7). He enlarged the city of Caesarea Philippi, and called it Neronias, in honour of Nero. It was before him and his sister that Paul made his defence at Caesarea (Acts 25:12-27). He died at Rome A.D. 100, in the third year of the emperor Trajan.

Herodians - a Jewish political party who sympathized with (Mark 3:6; 12:13; Matt, 22:16; Luke 20:20) the Herodian rulers in their general policy of government, and in the social customs which they introduced from Rome. They were at one with the Sadducees in holding the duty of submission to Rome, and of supporting the Herods on the throne. (Comp. Mark 8:15; Matt. 16:6.)

Herodias - (Matt. 14:3-11; Mark 6:17-28; Luke 3:19), the daughter of Aristobulus and Bernice. While residing at Rome with her husband Herod Philip I. and her daughter, Herod Antipas fell in with her during one of his journeys to that city. She consented to leave her husband and become his wife. Some time after, Herod met John the Baptist, who boldly declared the marriage to be unlawful. For this he was "cast into prison," in the castle probably of Machaerus (q.v.), and was there subsequently beheaded.

Herodion - a Christian at Rome whom Paul salutes and calls his "kinsman" (Rom. 16:11).

Herod Philip I. - (Mark 6:17), the son of Herod the Great by Mariamne, the daughter of Simon, the high priest. He is distinguished from another Philip called "the tetrarch." He lived at Rome as a private person with his wife Herodias and his daughter Salome.

Herod Philip II. - the son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. He was "tetrarch" of Batanea, Iturea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. He rebuilt the city of Caesarea Philippi, calling it by his own name to distinguish it from the Caesarea on the sea-coast which was the seat of the Roman government. He married Salome, the daughter of Herodias (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27; Luke 3:1).

Herod the Great - (Matt. 2:1-22; Luke 1:5; Acts 23:35), the son of Antipater, an Idumaean, and Cypros, an Arabian of noble descent. In the year B.C. 47 Julius Caesar made Antipater, a "wily Idumaean," procurator of Judea, who divided his territories between his four sons, Galilee falling to the lot of Herod, who was afterwards appointed tetrarch of Judea by Mark Antony (B.C. 40), and also king of Judea by the Roman senate.

He was of a stern and cruel disposition. "He was brutish and a stranger to all humanity." Alarmed by the tidings of one "born King of the Jews," he sent forth and "slew all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under" (Matt. 2:16). He was fond of splendour, and lavished great sums in rebuilding and adorning the cities of his empire. He rebuilt the city of Caesarea (q.v.) on the coast, and also the city of Samaria (q.v.), which he called Sebaste, in honour of Augustus. He restored the ruined temple of Jerusalem, a work which was begun B.C. 20, but was not finished till after Herod's death, probably not till about A.D. 50 (John 2:20). After a troubled reign of thirty-seven years, he died at Jericho amid great agonies both of body and mind, B.C. 4, i.e., according to the common chronology, in the year in which Jesus was born.

After his death his kingdom was divided among three of his sons. Of these, Philip had the land east of Jordan, between Caesarea Philippi and Bethabara, Antipas had Galilee and Peraea, while Archelaus had Judea and Samaria.

Heron - (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18), ranked among the unclean birds. The Hebrew name is 'anaphah, and indicates that the bird so named is remarkable for its angry disposition. "The herons are wading-birds, peculiarly irritable, remarkable for their voracity, frequenting marshes and oozy rivers, and spread over the regions of the East." The Ardea russeta, or little golden egret, is the commonest species in Asia.

Heshbon - intelligence, a city ruled over by Sihon, king of the Amorites (Josh. 3:10; 13:17). It was taken by Moses (Num. 21:23-26), and became afterwards a Levitical city (Josh. 21:39) in the tribe of Reuben (Num. 32:37). After the Exile it was taken possession of by the Moabites (Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:2, 34, 45). The ruins of this town are still seen about 20 miles east of Jordan from the north end of the Dead Sea. There are reservoirs in this district, which are probably the "fishpools" referred to in Cant. 7:4.

Heshmon - fatness, a town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:27).

Heth - dread, a descendant of Canaan, and the ancestor of the Hittites (Gen. 10:18; Deut. 7:1), who dwelt in the vicinity of Hebron (Gen. 23:3, 7). The Hittites were a Hamitic race. They are called "the sons of Heth" (Gen. 23:3, 5, 7, 10, 16, 18, 20).

Hethlon - wrapped up, a place on the north border of Palestine. The "way of Hethlon" (Ezek. 47:15; 48:1) is probably the pass at the end of Lebanon from the Mediterranean to the great plain of Hamath (q.v.), or the "entrance of Hamath."

Hezekiah - whom Jehovah has strengthened. (1.) Son of Ahaz (2 Kings 18:1; 2 Chr. 29:1), whom he succeeded on the throne of the kingdom of Judah. He reigned twenty-nine years (B.C. 726-697). The history of this king is contained in 2 Kings 18:20, Isa. 36-39, and 2 Chr. 29-32. He is spoken of as a great and good king. In public life he followed the example of his great-granfather Uzziah. He set himself to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, and among other things which he did for this end, he destroyed the "brazen serpent," which had been removed to Jerusalem, and had become an object of idolatrous worship (Num. 21:9). A great reformation was wrought in the kingdom of Judah in his day (2 Kings 18:4; 2 Chr. 29:3-36).

On the death of Sargon and the accession of his son Sennacherib to the throne of Assyria, Hezekiah refused to pay the tribute which his father had paid, and "rebelled against the king of Assyria, and served him not," but entered into a league with Egypt (Isa. 30; 31; 36:6-9). This led to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib (2 Kings 18:13-16), who took forty cities, and besieged Jerusalem with mounds. Hezekiah yielded to the demands of the Assyrian king, and agreed to pay him three hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold (18:14).

But Sennacherib dealt treacherously with Hezekiah (Isa. 33:1), and a second time within two years invaded his kingdom (2 Kings 18:17; 2 Chr. 32:9; Isa. 36). This invasion issued in the destruction of Sennacherib's army. Hezekiah prayed to God, and "that night the angel of the Lord went out, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men." Sennacherib fled with the shattered remnant of his forces to Nineveh, where, seventeen years after, he was assassinated by his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer (2 Kings 19:37). (See SENNACHERIB.)

The narrative of Hezekiah's sickness and miraculous recovery is found in 2 Kings 20:1, 2 Chr. 32:24, Isa. 38:1. Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery, and among them Merodach-baladan, the viceroy of Babylon (2 Chr. 32:23; 2 Kings 20:12). He closed his days in peace and prosperity, and was succeeded by his son Manasseh. He was buried in the "chiefest of the sepulchres of the sons of David" (2 Chr. 32:27-33). He had "after him none like him among all the kings of Judah, nor any that were before him" (2 Kings 18:5). (See ISAIAH.)

Hezion - vision, the father of Tabrimon, and grandfather of Ben-hadad, king of Syria (1 Kings 15:18).

Hezir - swine or strong. (1.) The head of the seventeenth course of the priests (1 Chr. 24:15). (2.) Neh. 10:20, one who sealed Nehemiah's covenant.

Hezro - a Carmelite, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:37).

Hezron - enclosed. (1.) One of the sons of Reuben (Gen. 46:9; Ex. 6:14). (2.) The older of the two sons of Pharez (Gen. 46:12). (3.) A plain in the south of Judah, west of Kadesh-barnea (Josh. 15:3).

Hiddai - rejoicing of Jehovah, one of David's thirty-seven guards (2 Sam. 23:30).

Hiddekel - called by the Accadians id Idikla; i.e., "the river of Idikla", the third of the four rivers of Paradise (Gen. 2:14). Gesenius interprets the word as meaning "the rapid Tigris." The Tigris rises in the mountains of Armenia, 15 miles south of the source of the Euphrates, which, after pursuing a south-east course, it joins at Kurnah, about 50 miles above Bassorah. Its whole length is about 1,150 miles.

Hiel - life of (i.e., from) God, a native of Bethel, who built (i.e., fortified) Jericho some seven hundred years after its destruction by the Israelites. There fell on him for such an act the imprecation of Joshua (6:26). He laid the foundation in his first-born, and set up the gates in his youngest son (1 Kings 16:34), i.e., during the progress of the work all his children died.

Hierapolis - sacred city, a city of Phrygia, where was a Christian church under the care of Epaphras (Col. 4:12, 13). This church was founded at the same time as that of Colosse. It now bears the name of Pambuk-Kalek, i.e., "Cotton Castle", from the white appearance of the cliffs at the base of which the ruins are found.

Higgaion - in Ps. 92:3 means the murmuring tone of the harp. In Ps. 9:16 it is a musical sign, denoting probably a pause in the instrumental interlude. In Ps. 19:14 the word is rendered "meditation;" and in Lam. 3:62, "device" (R.V., "imagination").

High place - an eminence, natural or artificial, where worship by sacrifice or offerings was made (1 Kings 13:32; 2 Kings 17:29). The first altar after the Flood was built on a mountain (Gen. 8:20). Abraham also built an altar on a mountain (12:7, 8). It was on a mountain in Gilead that Laban and Jacob offered sacrifices (31:54). After the Israelites entered the Promised Land they were strictly enjoined to overthrow the high places of the Canaanites (Ex. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; 12:2, 3), and they were forbidden to worship the Lord on high places (Deut. 12:11-14), and were enjoined to use but one altar for sacrifices (Lev. 17:3, 4; Deut. 12; 16:21). The injunction against high places was, however, very imperfectly obeyed, and we find again and again mention made of them (2 Kings 14:4; 15:4, 35:2 Chr. 15:17, etc.).

High priest - Aaron was the first who was solemnly set apart to this office (Ex. 29:7; 30:23; Lev. 8:12). He wore a peculiar dress, which on his death passed to his successor in office (Ex. 29:29, 30). Besides those garments which he wore in common with all priests, there were four that were peculiar to himself as high priest:

(1.) The "robe" of the ephod, all of blue, of "woven work," worn immediately under the ephod. It was without seam or sleeves. The hem or skirt was ornamented with pomegranates and golden bells, seventy-two of each in alternate order. The sounding of the bells intimated to the people in the outer court the time when the high priest entered into the holy place to burn incense before the Lord (Ex. 28).

(2.) The "ephod" consisted of two parts, one of which covered the back and the other the breast, which were united by the "curious girdle." It was made of fine twined linen, and ornamented with gold and purple. Each of the shoulder-straps was adorned with a precious stone, on which the names of the twelve tribes were engraved. This was the high priest's distinctive vestment (1 Sam. 2:28; 14:3; 21:9; 23:6, 9; 30:7).

(3.) The "breastplate of judgment" (Ex. 28:6-12, 25-28; 39:2-7) of "cunning work." It was a piece of cloth doubled, of one span square. It bore twelve precious stones, set in four rows of three in a row, which constituted the Urim and Thummim (q.v.). These stones had the names of the twelve tribes engraved on them. When the high priest, clothed with the ephod and the breastplate, inquired of the Lord, answers were given in some mysterious way by the Urim and Thummim (1 Sam. 14:3, 18, 19; 23:2, 4, 9, 11,12; 28:6; 2 Sam. 5:23).

(4.) The "mitre," or upper turban, a twisted band of eight yards of fine linen coiled into a cap, with a gold plate in front, engraved with "Holiness to the Lord," fastened to it by a ribbon of blue.

To the high priest alone it was permitted to enter the holy of holies, which he did only once a year, on the great Day of Atonement, for "the way into the holiest of all was not yet made manifest" (Heb. 9; 10). Wearing his gorgeous priestly vestments, he entered the temple before all the people, and then, laying them aside and assuming only his linen garments in secret, he entered the holy of holies alone, and made expiation, sprinkling the blood of the sin offering on the mercy seat, and offering up incense. Then resuming his splendid robes, he reappeared before the people (Lev. 16). Thus the wearing of these robes came to be identified with the Day of Atonement.

The office, dress, and ministration of the high priest were typical of the priesthood of our Lord (Heb. 4:14; 7:25; 9:12, etc.).

It is supposed that there were in all eighty-three high priests, beginning with Aaron (B.C. 1657) and ending with Phannias (A.D. 70). At its first institution the office of high priest was held for life (but comp. 1 Kings 2:27), and was hereditary in the family of Aaron (Num. 3:10). The office continued in the line of Eleazar, Aaron's eldest son, for two hundred and ninety-six years, when it passed to Eli, the first of the line of Ithamar, who was the fourth son of Aaron. In this line it continued to Abiathar, whom Solomon deposed, and appointed Zadok, of the family of Eleazar, in his stead (1 Kings 2:35), in which it remained till the time of the Captivity. After the Return, Joshua, the son of Josedek, of the family of Eleazar, was appointed to this office. After him the succession was changed from time to time under priestly or political influences.

Highway - a raised road for public use. Such roads were not found in Palestine; hence the force of the language used to describe the return of the captives and the advent of the Messiah (Isa. 11:16; 35:8; 40:3; 62:10) under the figure of the preparation of a grand thoroughfare for their march.

During their possession of Palestine the Romans constructed several important highways, as they did in all countries which they ruled.

Hilkiah - portion of Jehovah. (1.) 1 Chr. 6:54. (2.) 1 Chr. 26:11. (3.) The father of Eliakim (2 Kings 18:18, 26, 37). (4.) The father of Gemariah (Jer. 29:3). (5.) The father of the prophet Jeremiah (1:1).

(6.) The high priest in the reign of Josiah (1 Chr. 6:13; Ezra 7:1). To him and his deputy (2 Kings 23:5), along with the ordinary priests and the Levites who had charge of the gates, was entrusted the purification of the temple in Jerusalem. While this was in progress, he discovered in some hidden corner of the building a book called the "book of the law" (2 Kings 22:8) and the "book of the covenant" (23:2). Some have supposed that this "book" was nothing else than the original autograph copy of the Pentateuch written by Moses (Deut. 31:9-26). This remarkable discovery occurred in the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign (B.C. 624), a discovery which permanently affected the whole subsequent history of Israel. (See JOSIAH ¯T0002116; SHAPHAN.)

(7.) Neh. 12:7. (8.) Neh. 8:4.

Hill - (1.) Heb. gib'eah, a curved or rounded hill, such as are common to Palestine (Ps. 65:12; 72:3; 114:4, 6).

(2.) Heb. har, properly a mountain range rather than an individual eminence (Ex. 24:4, 12, 13, 18; Num. 14:40, 44, 45). In Deut. 1:7, Josh. 9:1; 10:40; 11:16, it denotes the elevated district of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim, which forms the watershed between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.

(3.) Heb. ma'aleh in 1 Sam. 9:11. Authorized Version "hill" is correctly rendered in the Revised Version "ascent."

(4.) In Luke 9:37 the "hill" is the Mount of Transfiguration.

Hillel - praising, a Pirathonite, father of the judge Abdon (Judg. 12:13, 15).

Hill of Evil Counsel - on the south of the Valley of Hinnom. It is so called from a tradition that the house of the high priest Caiaphas, when the rulers of the Jews resolved to put Christ to death, stood here.

Hind - Heb. 'ayalah (2 Sam. 22:34; Ps. 18:33, etc.) and 'ayeleth (Ps. 22, title), the female of the hart or stag. It is referred to as an emblem of activity (Gen. 49:21), gentleness (Prov. 5:19), feminine modesty (Cant. 2:7; 3:5), earnest longing (Ps. 42:1), timidity (Ps. 29:9). In the title of Ps. 22, the word probably refers to some tune bearing that name.

Hinge - (Heb. tsir), that on which a door revolves. "Doors in the East turn rather on pivots than on what we term hinges. In Syria, and especially in the Hauran, there are many ancient doors, consisting of stone slabs with pivots carved out of the same piece inserted in sockets above and below, and fixed during the building of the house" (Prov. 26:14).

Hinnom - a deep, narrow ravine separating Mount Zion from the so-called "Hill of Evil Counsel." It took its name from "some ancient hero, the son of Hinnom." It is first mentioned in Josh. 15:8. It had been the place where the idolatrous Jews burned their children alive to Moloch and Baal. A particular part of the valley was called Tophet, or the "fire-stove," where the children were burned. After the Exile, in order to show their abhorrence of the locality, the Jews made this valley the receptacle of the offal of the city, for the destruction of which a fire was, as is supposed, kept constantly burning there.

The Jews associated with this valley these two ideas, (1) that of the sufferings of the victims that had there been sacrificed; and (2) that of filth and corruption. It became thus to the popular mind a symbol of the abode of the wicked hereafter. It came to signify hell as the place of the wicked. "It might be shown by infinite examples that the Jews expressed hell, or the place of the damned, by this word. The word Gehenna [the Greek contraction of Hinnom] was never used in the time of Christ in any other sense than to denote the place of future punishment." About this fact there can be no question. In this sense the word is used eleven times in our Lord's discourses (Matt. 23:33; Luke 12:5; Matt. 5:22, etc.).

Hiram - high-born. (1.) Generally "Huram," one of the sons of Bela (1 Chr. 8:5).

(2.) Also "Huram" and "Horam," king of Tyre. He entered into an alliance with David, and assisted him in building his palace by sending him able workmen, and also cedar-trees and fir-trees from Lebanon (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1). After the death of David he entered into a similar alliance with Solomon, and assisted him greatly in building the temple (1 Kings 5:1; 9:11; 2 Chr. 2:3). He also took part in Solomon's traffic to the Eastern Seas (1 Kings 9:27; 10:11; 2 Chr. 8:18; 9:10).

(3.) The "master workman" whom Hiram sent to Solomon. He was the son of a widow of Dan, and of a Tyrian father. In 2 Chr. 2:13 "Huram my father" should be Huram Abi, the word "Abi" (rendered here "my father") being regarded as a proper name, or it may perhaps be a title of distinction given to Huram, and equivalent to "master." (Comp. 1 Kings 7:14; 2 Chr. 4:16.) He cast the magnificent brazen works for Solomon's temple in clay-beds in the valley of Jordan, between Succoth and Zarthan.

Hireling - a labourer employed on hire for a limited time (Job 7:1; 14:6; Mark 1:20). His wages were paid as soon as his work was over (Lev. 19:13). In the time of our Lord a day's wage was a "penny" (q.v.) i.e., a Roman denarius (Matt. 20:1-14).

Hiss - to express contempt (Job 27:23). The destruction of the temple is thus spoken of (1 Kings 9:8). Zechariah (10:8) speaks of the Lord gathering the house of Judah as it were with a hiss: "I will hiss for them." This expression may be "derived from the noise made to attract bees in hiving, or from the sound naturally made to attract a person's attention."

Hittites - Palestine and Syria appear to have been originally inhabited by three different tribes. (1.) The Semites, living on the east of the isthmus of Suez. They were nomadic and pastoral tribes. (2.) The Phoenicians, who were merchants and traders; and (3.) the Hittites, who were the warlike element of this confederation of tribes. They inhabited the whole region between the Euphrates and Damascus, their chief cities being Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Kadesh, now Tell Neby Mendeh, in the Orontes valley, about six miles south of the Lake of Homs. These Hittites seem to have risen to great power as a nation, as for a long time they were formidable rivals of the Egyptian and Assyrian empires. In the book of Joshua they always appear as the dominant race to the north of Galilee.

Somewhere about the twenty-third century B.C. the Syrian confederation, led probably by the Hittites, arched against Lower Egypt, which they took possession of, making Zoan their capital. Their rulers were the Hyksos, or shepherd kings. They were at length finally driven out of Egypt. Rameses II. sought vengeance against the "vile Kheta," as he called them, and encountered and defeated them in the great battle of Kadesh, four centuries after Abraham. (See JOSHUA.)

They are first referred to in Scripture in the history of Abraham, who bought from Ephron the Hittite the field and the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 15:20: 23:3-18). They were then settled at Kirjath-arba. From this tribe Esau took his first two wives (26:34; 36:2).

They are afterwards mentioned in the usual way among the inhabitants of the Promised Land (Ex. 23:28). They were closely allied to the Amorites, and are frequently mentioned along with them as inhabiting the mountains of Palestine. When the spies entered the land they seem to have occupied with the Amorites the mountain region of Judah (Num. 13:29). They took part with the other Canaanites against the Israelites (Josh. 9:1; 11:3).

After this there are few references to them in Scripture. Mention is made of "Ahimelech the Hittite" (1 Sam. 26:6), and of "Uriah the Hittite," one of David's chief officers (2 Sam. 23:39; 1 Chr. 11:41). In the days of Solomon they were a powerful confederation in the north of Syria, and were ruled by "kings." They are met with after the Exile still a distinct people (Ezra 9:1; comp. Neh. 13:23-28).

The Hebrew merchants exported horses from Egypt not only for the kings of Israel, but also for the Hittites (1 Kings 10:28, 29). From the Egyptian monuments we learn that "the Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid' features, whose receding foreheads, oblique eyes, and protruding upper jaws are represented as faithfully on their own monuments as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egyptian artists of caricaturing their enemies. The Amorites, on the contrary, were a tall and handsome people. They are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, and reddish hair, all the characteristics, in fact, of the white race" (Sayce's The Hittites). The original seat of the Hittite tribes was the mountain ranges of Taurus. They belonged to Asia Minor, and not to Syria.

Hivites - one of the original tribes scattered over Palestine, from Hermon to Gibeon in the south. The name is interpreted as "midlanders" or "villagers" (Gen. 10:17; 1 Chr. 1:15). They were probably a branch of the Hittites. At the time of Jacob's return to Canaan, Hamor the Hivite was the "prince of the land" (Gen. 24:2-28).

They are next mentioned during the Conquest (Josh. 9:7; 11:19). They principally inhabited the northern confines of Western Palestine (Josh. 11:3; Judg. 3:3). A remnant of them still existed in the time of Solomon (1 Kings 9:20).

Hizkiah - an ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah (1:1).

Hizkijah - (Neh. 10:17), one who sealed the covenant.

Hobab - beloved, the Kenite, has been usually identified with Jethro (q.v.), Ex. 18:5, 27; comp. Num. 10:29, 30. In Judg. 4:11, the word rendered "father-in-law" means properly any male relative by marriage (comp. Gen. 19:14, "son-in-law," A.V.), and should be rendered "brother-in-law," as in the R.V. His descendants followed Israel to Canaan (Num. 10:29), and at first pitched their tents near Jericho, but afterwards settled in the south in the borders of Arad (Judg. 1:8-11, 16).

Hobah - hiding-place, a place to the north of Damascus, to which Abraham pursued Chedorlaomer and his confederates (Gen. 14:15).

"I"

Ibhar

"Chosen, one of David's sons (1 Chr. 3:6; 2 Sam. 5:15). ... Read more about Ibhar...

Ibleam

"People-waster, a city assigned to Manasseh (Josh. 17:11), from" "which the Israelites, however, could not expel the Canaanites" (Judg. 1:27). It is also called Bileam (1 Chr. 6:70). It was "probably ... Read more about Ibleam...

Ibzan

"Illustrious, the tenth judge of Israel (Judg. 12:8-10). He ruled" seven years. ... Read more about Ibzan...

Ice

"Frequently mentioned (Job 6:16; 38:29; Ps. 147:17, etc.). (See" [290]CRYSTAL.) ... Read more about Ice...

Ichabod

When the tidings of the disastrous defeat of the Israelites in the battle against the Philistines near to Mizpeh were carried "to Shiloh, the wife of Phinehas "was near to be delivered. And" "when sh ... Read more about Ichabod...

Iconium

The capital of ancient Lycaonia. It was first visited by Paul and Barnabas from Antioch-in-Pisidia during the apostle's first "missionary journey (Acts 13:50, 51). Here they were persecuted" "by the ... Read more about Iconium...

Idalah

"Snares(?), a city near the west border of Zebulun (Josh. 19:15)." "It has been identified with the modern Jeida, in the valley of" Kishon. ... Read more about Idalah...

Iddo

(1.) Timely (1 Chr. 6:21). A Gershonite Levite. "(2.) Lovely. The son of Zechariah (1 Chr. 27:21), the ruler of Manasseh in David's time. "(3.) Timely. The father of Ahinadab, who was one of Solomon' ... Read more about Iddo...

Idol

"(1.) Heb. aven, "nothingness;" "vanity" (Isa. 66:3; 41:29; Deut." "32:21; 1 Kings 16:13; Ps. 31:6; Jer. 8:19, etc.)." "(2.) `Elil, "a thing of naught" (Ps. 97:7; Isa. 19:3); a word of "contempt, use ... Read more about Idol...

Idolatry

Image-worship or divine honour paid to any created object. Paul describes the origin of idolatry in Rom. 1:21-25: men forsook "God, and sank into ignorance and moral corruption (1:28)." "The forms of ... Read more about Idolatry...

Idumaea

"The Greek form of Edom (Isa. 34:5, 6; Ezek. 35:15; 36:5, but in" "R.V. "Edom"). (See [291]EDOM)." ... Read more about Idumaea...

Igal

"Avengers. (1.) Num. 13:7, one of the spies of the tribe of" "Issachar. (2.) Son of Nathan of Zobah, and one of David's" warriors (2 Sam. 23:36). (3.) 1 Chr. 3:22. ... Read more about Igal...

Iim

Ruins. (1.) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:29). "(2.) One of the stations of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 33:45). ... Read more about Iim...

Ijeabarim

"Ruins of Abarim, the forty-seventh station of the Israelites in" "the wilderness, "in the border of Moab" (Num. 33:44)." ... Read more about Ijeabarim...

Ijon

"A ruin, a city of Naphtali, captured by Ben-hadad of Syria at" "the instance of Asa (1 Kings 15:20), and afterwards by" Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (2 Kings 15:29) in the reign of Pekah; now el-Khiam ... Read more about Ijon...

Ilai

"An Ahohite, one of David's chief warriors (1 Chr. 11:29); called" also Zalmon (2 Sam. 23:28). ... Read more about Ilai...

Illyricum

"A country to the north-west of Macedonia, on the eastern shores" "of the Adriatic, now almost wholly comprehended in Dalmatia, a" name formerly given to the southern part of Illyricum (2 Tim. 4:10). ... Read more about Illyricum...

Imagery

"Only in the phrase "chambers of his imagery" (Ezek. 8:12). (See" [292]CHAMBER.) ... Read more about Imagery...

Imla

"Replenisher, the father of Micaiah the prophet (2 Chr. 18:7, 8)." ... Read more about Imla...

Immanuel

God with us. In the Old Testament it occurs only in Isa. 7:14 and 8:8. Most Christian interpreters have regarded these words "as directly and exclusively a prophecy of our Saviour, an" interpretation ... Read more about Immanuel...

Immer

Talkative. (1.) The head of the sixteenth priestly order (1 Chr. 24:14). (2.) Jer. 20:1. (3.) Ezra 2:37; Neh. 7:40. (4.) Ezra 2:59; Neh. 7:61. (5.) The father of Zadok (Neh. 3:29). ... Read more about Immer...

Immortality

Perpetuity of existence. The doctrine of immortality is taught in the Old Testament. It is plainly implied in the writings of "Moses (Gen. 5:22, 24; 25:8; 37:35; 47:9; 49:29, comp. Heb." "11:13-16; E ... Read more about Immortality...

Imputation

Is used to designate any action or word or thing as reckoned to a person. Thus in doctrinal language (1) the sin of Adam is "imputed to all his descendants, i.e., it is reckoned as theirs," and they ... Read more about Imputation...

Incarnation

That act of grace whereby Christ took our human nature into "union with his Divine Person, became man. Christ is both God and" "man. Human attributes and actions are predicated of him, and he" of who ... Read more about Incarnation...

Incense

"A fragrant composition prepared by the "art of the apothecary." "It consisted of four ingredients "beaten small" (Ex. 30:34-36)." "That which was not thus prepared was called "strange incense" (30:9 ... Read more about Incense...

India

"Occurs only in Esther 1:1 and 8:9, where the extent of the" dominion of the Persian king is described. The country so "designated here is not the peninsula of Hindustan, but the" "country surroundin ... Read more about India...

Inkhorn

The Hebrew word so rendered means simply a round vessel or cup "for containing ink, which was generally worn by writers in the" "girdle (Ezek. 9:2, 3, 11). The word "inkhorn" was used by the" "transl ... Read more about Inkhorn...

Inn

"In the modern sense, unknown in the East. The khans or" "caravanserais, which correspond to the European inn, are not" "alluded to in the Old Testament. The "inn" mentioned in Ex. 4:24" was just the ... Read more about Inn...

Inspiration

That extraordinary or supernatural divine influence vouchsafed "to those who wrote the Holy Scriptures, rendering their writings" "infallible. "All scripture is given by inspiration of God" "(R.V., " ... Read more about Inspiration...

Intercession of Christ

"Christ's priestly office consists of these two parts, (1) the" "offering up of himself as a sacrifice, and (2) making continual" intercession for us. "When on earth he made intercession for his peop ... Read more about Intercession of Christ...

Intercession of the Spirit

"(Rom. 8:26, 27; John 14:26). "Christ is a royal Priest (Zech." "6:13). From the same throne, as King, he dispenses his Spirit to" "all the objects of his care, while as Priest he intercedes for" "th ... Read more about Intercession of the Spirit...

Iphedeiah

"Set free by Jehovah, a chief of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr." 8:25). ... Read more about Iphedeiah...

Ira

"Citizen; wakeful. (1.) A Tekoite, one of David's thirty warriors" (2 Sam. 23:26). "(2.) An Ithrite, also one of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:38). "(3.) A Jairite and priest, a royal chaplain (2 Sam. 20 ... Read more about Ira...

Irad

"Runner; wild ass, one of the antediluvian patriarchs, the father" "of Mehujael (Gen. 4:18), and grandson of Cain." ... Read more about Irad...

Iram

"Citizen, chief of an Edomite tribe in Mount Seir (Gen. 36:43)." ... Read more about Iram...

Irhaheres

"According to some MSS., meaning "city of destruction." Other" "MSS. read 'Irhahares; rendered "city of the sun", Isa. 19:18," where alone the word occurs. This name may probably refer to Heliopolis. ... Read more about Irhaheres...

Iron

Tubal-Cain is the first-mentioned worker in iron (Gen. 4:22). The Egyptians wrought it at Sinai before the Exodus. David prepared it in great abundance for the temple (1 Chr. 22:3: 29:7). The merchan ... Read more about Iron...

Irrigation

"As streams were few in Palestine, water was generally stored up" "in winter in reservoirs, and distributed through gardens in" "numerous rills, which could easily be turned or diverted by the" foot ... Read more about Irrigation...

Isaac

"Laughter. (1) Israel, or the kingdom of the ten tribes (Amos" "7:9, 16)." "(2.) The only son of Abraham by Sarah. He was the longest lived of the three patriarchs (Gen. 21:1-3). He was circumcised w ... Read more about Isaac...

Isaiah

"(Heb. Yesh'yahu, i.e., "the salvation of Jehovah"). (1.) The son" "of Amoz (Isa. 1:1; 2:1), who was apparently a man of humble" "rank. His wife was called "the prophetess" (8:3), either because" "sh ... Read more about Isaiah...

Isaiah The Book of

Consists of prophecies delivered (Isa. 1) in the reign of Uzziah "(1-5), (2) of Jotham (6), (3) Ahaz (7-14:28), (4) the first half" "of Hezekiah's reign (14:28-35), (5) the second half of" "Hezekiah' ... Read more about Isaiah The Book of...

Iscah

"Spy, the daughter of Haran and sister of Milcah and Lot (Gen." "11:29, 31)." ... Read more about Iscah...

Iscariot

(See [297]JUDAS.) ... Read more about Iscariot...

Ishbak

"Leaving, one of Abraham's sons by Keturah (Gen. 25:2)." ... Read more about Ishbak...

Ishbibenob

"My seat at Nob, one of the Rephaim, whose spear was three" hundred shekels in weight. He was slain by Abishai (2 Sam. "21:16, 17)." ... Read more about Ishbibenob...

Ishbosheth

"Man of shame or humiliation, the youngest of Saul's four sons," and the only one who survived him (2 Sam. 2-4). His name was originally Eshbaal (1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39). He was about forty years of age w ... Read more about Ishbosheth...

Ishi

"My husband, a symbolical name used in Hos. 2:16 (See" [298]BAALI.) ... Read more about Ishi...

Ishmael

"God hears. (1.) Abraham's eldest son, by Hagar the concubine" "(Gen. 16:15; 17:23). He was born at Mamre, when Abraham was" "eighty-six years of age, eleven years after his arrival in" Canaan (16:3; ... Read more about Ishmael...

Ishmaiah

"Heard by Jehovah. (1.) A Gibeonite who joined David at Ziklag," a hero among the thirty and over the thirty (1 Chr. 12:4). "(2.) Son of Obadiah, and viceroy of Zebulun under David and Solomon (1 Chr ... Read more about Ishmaiah...

Ishmeelites

"(Gen. 37:28; 39:1, A.V.) should be "Ishmaelites," as in the" Revised Version. ... Read more about Ishmeelites...

Ishtob

"Man of Tob, one of the small Syrian kingdoms which together" "constituted Aram (2 Sam. 10:6, 8)." ... Read more about Ishtob...

Island

"(Heb. `i, "dry land," as opposed to water) occurs in its usual" "signification (Isa. 42:4, 10, 12, 15, comp. Jer. 47:4), but more" frequently simply denotes a maritime region or sea-coast (Isa. "20: ... Read more about Island...

Israel

The name conferred on Jacob after the great prayer-struggle at "Peniel (Gen. 32:28), because "as a prince he had power with God" "and prevailed." (See [301]JACOB.) This is the common name given" to J ... Read more about Israel...

Israel Kingdom of

"(B.C. 975-B.C. 722). Soon after the death of Solomon, Ahijah's" "prophecy (1 Kings 11:31-35) was fulfilled, and the kingdom was" "rent in twain. Rehoboam, the son and successor of Solomon, was" scar ... Read more about Israel Kingdom of...

Issachar

"Hired (Gen. 30:18). "God hath given me," said Leah, "my hire" "(Heb. sekhari)...and she called his name Issachar." He was" "Jacob's ninth son, and was born in Padan-aram (comp. 28:2). He" "had four ... Read more about Issachar...

Italian band

The name of the Roman cohort to which Cornelius belonged (Acts "10:1), so called probably because it consisted of men recruited" in Italy. ... Read more about Italian band...

Italy

"Acts 18:2; 27:1, 6; Heb. 13:24), like most geographical names," was differently used at different periods of history. As the "power of Rome advanced, nations were successively conquered and" added t ... Read more about Italy...

Ithamar

"Palm isle, the fourth and youngest son of Aaron (1 Chr. 6:3). He" was consecrated to the priesthood along with his brothers (Ex. "6:23); and after the death of Nadab and Abihu, he and Eleazar" "alon ... Read more about Ithamar...

Ithrite

Two of David's warriors so designated (2 Sam. 23:38; 1 Chr. 11:40). ... Read more about Ithrite...

Ittai

"Near; timely; or, with the Lord. (1.) A Benjamite, one of" David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23:29). "(2.) A native of Gath, a Philistine, who had apparently the command of the six hundred heroes who fo ... Read more about Ittai...

Ituraea

"A district in the north-east of Palestine, forming, along with" "the adjacent territory of Trachonitis, the tetrarchy of Philip" (Luke 3:1). The present Jedur comprehends the chief part of "Ituraea. ... Read more about Ituraea...

Ivah

"Overturning, a city of the Assyrians, whence colonists were" brought to Samaria (2 Kings 18:34; 19:13). It lay on the "Euphrates, between Sepharvaim and Henah, and is supposed by some" to have been ... Read more about Ivah...

Ivory

"(Heb. pl. shenhabbim, the "tusks of elephants") was early used" "in decorations by the Egyptians, and a great trade in it was" carried on by the Assyrians (Ezek. 27:6; Rev. 18:12). It was used by th ... Read more about Ivory...

Izhar

"Oil, one of the sons of Kohath, and grandson of Levi (Ex. 6:18," 21; Num. 16:1). ... Read more about Izhar...

Izrahite

The designation of one of David's officers (1 Chr. 27:8). ... Read more about Izrahite...

"J"

Jaakan

"He twists, one of the sons of Ezer, the son of Seir the Horite (1 Chr. 1:42). ... Read more about Jaakan...

Jaakobah

"Heel-catcher, a form of the name Jacob, one of the descendants" of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:36). ... Read more about Jaakobah...

Jaala

"A wild she-goat, one of the Nethinim, whose descendants returned" from the Captivity (Neh. 7:58). ... Read more about Jaala...

Jaalam

"Concealer, the second of Esau's three sons by Aholibamah (Gen." "36:5, 14)." ... Read more about Jaalam...

Jaanai

"Mourner, one of the chief Gadites (1 Chr. 5:12)." ... Read more about Jaanai...

Jaareoregim

"Forests of the weavers, a Bethlehemite (2 Sam. 21:19), and the" "father of Elhanan, who slew Goliath. In 1 Chr. 20:5 called JAIR." ... Read more about Jaareoregim...

Jaasau

"Fabricator, an Israelite who renounced his Gentile wife after" the Return (Ezra 10:37). ... Read more about Jaasau...

Jaasiel

"Made by God, one of David's body-guard, the son of Abner (1 Chr." "27:21), called Jasiel in 1 Chr. 11:47." ... Read more about Jaasiel...

Jaazaniah

"Heard by Jehovah. (1.) The son of Jeremiah, and one of the chief" Rechabites (Jer. 35:3). "(2.) The son of Shaphan (Ezek. 8:11). "(3.) The son of Azur, one of the twenty-five men seen by Ezekiel (11 ... Read more about Jaazaniah...

Jaazer

"He (God) helps, a city of the Amorites on the east of Jordan," "and assigned, with neighbouring places in Gilead, to Gad (Num." "32:1, 35; Josh. 13:25). It was allotted to the Merarite Levites" "(21 ... Read more about Jaazer...

Jaaziah

"Comforted by Jehovah, a descendant of Merari the Levite (1 Chr." "24:26, 27)." ... Read more about Jaaziah...

Jaaziel

"Comforted by God, a Levitical musician (1 Chr. 15:18)." ... Read more about Jaaziel...

Jabal

"A stream, a descendant of Cain, and brother of Jubal; "the" "father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle" (Gen. 4:20)." This description indicates that he led a wandering life. ... Read more about Jabal...

Jabbok

"A pouring out, or a wrestling, one of the streams on the east of" "Jordan, into which it falls about midway between the Sea of" "Galilee and the Dead Sea, or about 45 miles below the Sea of" Galilee ... Read more about Jabbok...

Jabesh

"Dry. (1.) For Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. 11:3, 9, 10)." "(2.) The father of Shallum (2 Kings 15:10, 13, 14), who usurped the throne of Israel on the death of Zachariah. ... Read more about Jabesh...

JabeshGilead

"A town on the east of Jordan, on the top of one of the green" "hills of Gilead, within the limits of the half tribe of" "Manasseh, and in full view of Beth-shan. It is first mentioned" in connection ... Read more about JabeshGilead...

Jabez

"Affiction. (1.) A descendant of Judah, of whom it is recorded" "that "God granted him that which he requested" (1 Chr. 4:9, 10)." "(2.) A place inhabited by several families of the scribes (1 Chr. 2 ... Read more about Jabez...

Jabin

"Discerner; the wise. (1.) A king of Hazor, at the time of the" "entrance of Israel into Canaan (Josh. 11:1-14), whose overthrow" and that of the northern chief with whom he had entered into a confed ... Read more about Jabin...

Jabneel

Built by God. (1.) A town in the north boundary of Judah (Josh. "15:11), called afterwards by the Greeks Jamnia, the modern" "Yebna, 11 miles south of Jaffa. After the fall of Jerusalem" "(A.D. 70), ... Read more about Jabneel...

Jabneh

"Building, (2 Chr. 26:6), identical with Jabneel (Josh. 15:11)." ... Read more about Jabneh...

Jachan

"Mourner, one of the chief Gadite "brothers" in Bashan (1 Chr." 5:13). ... Read more about Jachan...

Jachin

"Firm. (1.) The fourth son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10), called also" Jarib (1 Chr. 4:24). "(2.) The head of one of the courses (the twenty-first) of priests (1 Chr. 24:17). "(3.) One of the priests who re ... Read more about Jachin...

Jachin and Boaz

The names of two brazen columns set up in Solomon's temple (1 Kings 7:15-22). Each was eighteen cubits high and twelve in "circumference (Jer. 52:21, 23; 1 Kings 7:17-21). They had" doubtless a symbo ... Read more about Jachin and Boaz...

Jacinth

"Properly a flower of a reddish blue or deep purple (hyacinth)," and hence a precious stone of that colour (Rev. 21:20). It has been supposed to designate the same stone as the ligure (Heb. leshem) m ... Read more about Jacinth...

Jacob

"One who follows on another's heels; supplanter, (Gen. 25:26;" "27:36; Hos. 12:2-4), the second born of the twin sons of Isaac" "by Rebekah. He was born probably at Lahai-roi, when his father" was fi ... Read more about Jacob...

Jacobs Well

"(John 4:5, 6). This is one of the few sites in Palestine about" "which there is no dispute. It was dug by Jacob, and hence its" "name, in the "parcel of ground" which he purchased from the sons" "of ... Read more about Jacobs Well...

Jaddua

Known. (1.) One of the chiefs who subscribed the covenant (Neh. 10:21). "(2.) The last high priest mentioned in the Old Testament (Neh. "12:11, 22), sons of Jonathan." ... Read more about Jaddua...

Jadon

"Judge, a Meronothite who assisted in rebuilding the walls of" Jerusalem (Neh. 3:7). ... Read more about Jadon...

Jael

"Mountain-goat, the wife of Heber the Kenite (Judg. 4:17-22)." "When the Canaanites were defeated by Barak, Sisera, the captain" "of Jabin's army, fled and sought refuge with the friendly tribe" "of ... Read more about Jael...

Jagur

"Place of sojourn, a city on the southern border of Judah (Josh." 15:21). ... Read more about Jagur...

Jah

A contraction for Jehovah (Ps. 68:4). ... Read more about Jah...

Jahath

"Union. (1.) A son of Shimei, and grandson of Gershom (1 Chr." 23:10). "(2.) One of the sons of Shelomoth, of the family of Kohath (1 Chr. 24:22). "(3.) A Levite of the family of Merari, one of the o ... Read more about Jahath...

Jahaz

"Trodden down (called also Jahaza, Josh. 13:18; Jahazah, 21:36;" "Jahzah, 1 Chr. 6:78), a town where Sihon was defeated, in the" "borders of Moab and in the land of the Ammonites beyond Jordan," and ... Read more about Jahaz...

Jahaziel

Beheld by God. (1.) The third son of Hebron (1 Chr. 23:19). "(2.) A Benjamite chief who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:4). (3.) A priest who accompanied the removal of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. ... Read more about Jahaziel...

Jahdai

"Grasper, a descendant of Caleb, of the family of Hezron (1 Chr." 2:47). ... Read more about Jahdai...

Jahzeel

"Allotted by God, the first of the sons of Naphtali (Gen. 46:24)." ... Read more about Jahzeel...

Jahzerah

"Returner, the son of Meshullam, and father of Adiel (1 Chr." 9:12). ... Read more about Jahzerah...

Jailer

"(of Philippi), Acts 16:23. The conversion of the Roman jailer, a" "man belonging to a class "insensible as a rule and hardened by" "habit, and also disposed to despise the Jews, who were the" "beare ... Read more about Jailer...

Jair

Enlightener. (1.) The son of Segub. He was brought up with his "mother in Gilead, where he had possessions (1 Chr. 2:22). He" "distinguished himself in an expedition against Bashan, and" settled in t ... Read more about Jair...

Jairus

"A ruler of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose only daughter Jesus" restored to life (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41). Entering into the "chamber of death, accompanied by Peter and James and John and" "the fath ... Read more about Jairus...

Jakeh

"Pious, the father of Agur (Prov. 30:1). Nothing is known of him." ... Read more about Jakeh...

Jakim

Establisher. (1.) Chief of the twelfth priestly order (1 Chr. 24:12). "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:19). "(3.) Margin in Matt. 1:11 means Jehoiakim. ... Read more about Jakim...

Jalon

"Lodger, the last of the four sons of Ezra, of the tribe of Judah" (1 Chr. 4:17). ... Read more about Jalon...

Jambres

One of those who opposed Moses in Egypt (2 Tim. 3:8). (See [310]JANNES.) ... Read more about Jambres...

James

(1.) The son of Zebedee and Salome; an elder brother of John the "apostle. He was one of the twelve. He was by trade a fisherman," in partnership with Peter (Matt. 20:20; 27:56). With John and Peter ... Read more about James...

James Epistle of

"(1.) Author of, was James the Less, the Lord's brother, one of" the twelve apostles. He was one of the three pillars of the Church (Gal. 2:9). "(2.) It was addressed to the Jews of the dispersion, " ... Read more about James Epistle of...

Jannes

"One of the Egyptians who "withstood Moses" (2 Tim. 3:8)." ... Read more about Jannes...

Janoah

"Or Jano'hah, rest. (1.) A town on the north-eastern border of" "Ephraim, in the Jordan valley (Josh. 16:6, 7). Identified with" "the modern Yanun, 8 miles south-east of Nablus." "(2.) A town of Nort ... Read more about Janoah...

Janum

"Slumber, a town in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:53)." ... Read more about Janum...

Japheth

"Wide spreading: "God shall enlarge Japheth" (Heb. Yaphat Elohim" "le-Yephet, Gen. 9:27. Some, however, derive the name from" "yaphah, "to be beautiful;" hence white), one of the sons of" "Noah, ment ... Read more about Japheth...

Japhia

"Splendid. (1.) The king of Lachish, who joined in the" "confederacy against Joshua (Josh. 10:3), and was defeated and" slain. In one of the Amarna tablets he speaks of himself as king of Gezer. Call ... Read more about Japhia...

Japho

"Beauty, a sea-port in Dan (Josh. 19:46); called Joppa (q.v.) in" 2 Chr. 2:16; Ezra 3:7; Jonah 1:3; and in New Testament. ... Read more about Japho...

Jared

Descent. (1.) The fourth antediluvian patriarch in descent from "Seth (Gen. 5:15-20; Luke 3:37), the father of Enoch; called" Jered in 1 Chr. 1:2. "(2.) A son of Ezra probably (1 Chr. 4:18). ... Read more about Jared...

Jarib

An adversary. (1.) A son of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:24). (2.) One of the chiefs sent by Ezra to bring up the priests to Jerusalem (Ezra 8:16). "(3.) Ezra 10:18. ... Read more about Jarib...

Jarmuth

"Height. (1.) A town in the plain of Judah (Josh. 15:35)," "originally the residence of one of the Canaanitish kings (10:3," "5, 23). It has been identified with the modern Yarmuk, a village" about 7 ... Read more about Jarmuth...

Jashen

"Sleeping, called also Hashem (1 Chr. 11:34); a person, several" of whose sons were in David's body-guard (2 Sam. 23:32). ... Read more about Jashen...

Jasher

"Upright. "The Book of Jasher," rendered in the LXX. "the Book of" "the Upright One," by the Vulgate "the Book of Just Ones," was" "probably a kind of national sacred song-book, a collection of" "son ... Read more about Jasher...

Jashobeam

"Dweller among the people; or to whom the people turn, the" "Hachmonite (1 Chr. 11:11), one of David's chief heroes who" joined him at Ziklag (12:6). He was the first of the three who broke through t ... Read more about Jashobeam...

Jashub

Returner. (1.) The third of Issachar's four sons (1 Chr. 7:1); called also Job (Gen. 46:13). "(2.) Ezra 10:29. ... Read more about Jashub...

Jason

"He that will cure, the host of Paul and Silas in Thessalonica." "The Jews assaulted his house in order to seize Paul, but failing" "to find him, they dragged Jason before the ruler of the city" (Act ... Read more about Jason...

Jasper

"(Heb. yashpheh, "glittering"), a gem of various colours, one of" the twelve inserted in the high priest's breast-plate (Ex. 28:20). It is named in the building of the New Jerusalem (Rev. "21:18, 19) ... Read more about Jasper...

Jattir

"Pre-eminent, a city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:48;" 21:14). ... Read more about Jattir...

Javan

"(1.) The fourth "son" of Japheth (Gen. 10:2), whose descendants" "settled in Greece, i.e., Ionia, which bears the name of Javan in" "Hebrew. Alexander the Great is called the "king of Javan" "(rende ... Read more about Javan...

Javelin

"(1.) Heb. hanith, a lance, from its flexibility (1 Sam. 18:10," "11; 19:9, 10; 20:33)." "(2.) Heb. romah, a lance for heavy-armed troops, so called from its piercing (Num. 25:7). (See [311]ARMS.) ... Read more about Javelin...

Jawbone

Of an ass afforded Samson a weapon for the great slaughter of "the Philistines (Judg. 15:15), in which he slew a thousand men." "In verse 19 the Authorized Version reads, "God clave a hollow" "place ... Read more about Jawbone...

Jealousy

"Suspicion of a wife's purity, one of the strongest passions" (Num. 5:14; Prov. 6:34; Cant. 8:6); also an intense interest for another's honour or prosperity (Ps. 79:5; 1 Cor. 10:22; Zech. 1:14). ... Read more about Jealousy...

Jealousy Image of

"An idolatrous object, seen in vision by Ezekiel (Ezek. 8:3, 5)," which stood in the priests' or inner court of the temple. Probably identical with the statue of Astarte (2 Kings 21:7). ... Read more about Jealousy Image of...

Jealousy offering

The name of the offering the husband was to bring when he charged his wife with adultery (Num. 5:11-15). ... Read more about Jealousy offering...

Jealousy Waters of

"Water which the suspected wife was required to drink, so that" "the result might prove her guilt or innocence (Num. 5:12-17," 27). We have no record of this form of trial having been actually resort ... Read more about Jealousy Waters of...

Jearim

"Forests, a mountain on the border of Judah (Josh. 15:10)." ... Read more about Jearim...

Jebus

"Trodden hard, or fastness, or "the waterless hill", the name of" the Canaanitish city which stood on Mount Zion (Josh. 15:8; "18:16, 28). It is identified with Jerusalem (q.v.) in Judg." "19:10, and ... Read more about Jebus...

Jebusites

"The name of the original inhabitants of Jebus, mentioned" frequently among the seven nations doomed to destruction (Gen. "10:16; 15:21; Ex. 3:8, 17; 13:5, etc.). At the time of the" arrival of the I ... Read more about Jebusites...

Jecoliah

"Able through Jehovah, the wife of King Amaziah, and mother of" King Uzziah (2 Chr. 26:3). ... Read more about Jecoliah...

Jedaiah

"(1.) Invoker of Jehovah. The son of Shimri, a chief Simeonite (1" Chr. 4:37). "(2.) One of those who repaired the walls of Jerusalem after the return from Babylon (Neh. 3:10). (3.) Knowing Jehovah. ... Read more about Jedaiah...

Jediael

"Known by God. (1.) One of the sons of Benjamin, whose" "descendants numbered 17,200 warriors (1 Chr. 7:6, 10, 11)." "(2.) A Shimrite, one of David's bodyguard (1 Chr. 11:45). Probably same as in 12: ... Read more about Jediael...

Jedidiah

"Beloved by Jehovah, the name which, by the mouth of Nathan, the" Lord gave to Solomon at his birth as a token of the divine favour (2 Sam. 12:25). ... Read more about Jedidiah...

Jeduthun

"Lauder; praising, a Levite of the family of Merari, and one of" "the three masters of music appointed by David (1 Chr. 16:41, 42;" "25:1-6). He is called in 2 Chr. 35:15 "the king's seer." His" desc ... Read more about Jeduthun...

Jegarsahadutha

"Pile of testimony, the Aramaic or Syriac name which Laban gave" to the pile of stones erected as a memorial of the covenant "between him and Jacob (Gen. 31:47), who, however, called it in" "Hebrew b ... Read more about Jegarsahadutha...

Jehaleleel

Praiser of God. (1.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 4:16). "(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari (2 Chr. 29:12). ... Read more about Jehaleleel...

Jehdeiah

Rejoicer in Jehovah. (1.) One of the Levitical attendants at the "temple, a descendant of Shubael (1 Chr. 24:20)." "(2.) A Meronothite, herdsman of the asses under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:30). ... Read more about Jehdeiah...

Jehiel

God's living one. (1.) The father of Gibeon (1 Chr. 9:35). "(2.) One of David's guard (1 Chr. 11:44). "(3.) One of the Levites "of the second degree," appointed to conduct the music on the occasion o ... Read more about Jehiel...

Jehizkiah

"Jehovah strengthens, one of the chiefs of Ephraim (2 Chr." 28:12). ... Read more about Jehizkiah...

Jehoaddan

"Jehovah his ornament, the wife of King Jehoash, and mother of" King Amaziah (2 Kings 14:2). ... Read more about Jehoaddan...

Jehoahaz

"Jehovah his sustainer, or he whom Jehovah holdeth. (1.) The" "youngest son of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Chr. 21:17; 22:1, 6," "8, 9); usually Ahaziah (q.v.)." "(2.) The son and successor of Jehu, ki ... Read more about Jehoahaz...

Jehoash

Jehovah-given. (1.) The son of King Ahaziah. While yet an "infant, he was saved from the general massacre of the family by" "his aunt Jehosheba, and was apparently the only surviving" "descendant of ... Read more about Jehoash...

Jehohanan

"Jehovah-granted, Jeroboam II. (1.) A Korhite, the head of one of" the divisions of the temple porters (1 Chr. 26:3). "(2.) One of Jehoshaphat's "captains" (2 Chr. 17:15). "(3.) The father of Azariah ... Read more about Jehohanan...

Jehoiachin

Succeeded his father Jehoiakin (B.C. 599) when only eight years "of age, and reigned for one hundred days (2 Chr. 36:9). He is" "also called Jeconiah (Jer. 24:1; 27:20, etc.), and Coniah" "(22:24; 37 ... Read more about Jehoiachin...

Jehoiada

"Jehovah-known. (1.) The father of Benaiah, who was one of" David's chief warriors (2 Sam. 8:18; 20:23). "(2.) The high priest at the time of Athaliah's usurpation of the "throne of Judah. He married ... Read more about Jehoiada...

Jehoiakim

"He whom Jehovah has set up, the second son of Josiah, and" "eighteenth king of Judah, which he ruled over for eleven years" (B.C. 610-599). His original name was Eliakim (q.v.). "On the death of his ... Read more about Jehoiakim...

Jehoiarib

"Jehovah defends, a priest at Jerusalem, head of one of the" "sacerdotal courses (1 Chr. 9:10; 24:7). His "course" went up" from Babylon after the Exile (Ezra 2:36-39; Neh. 7:39-42). ... Read more about Jehoiarib...

Jehonadab

"Jehovah is liberal; or, whom Jehovah impels. (1.) A son of" "Shimeah, and nephew of David. It was he who gave the fatal" "wicked advice to Amnon, the heir to the throne (2 Sam. 13:3-6)." "He was ver ... Read more about Jehonadab...

Jehonathan

Whom Jehovah gave. (1.) One of the stewards of David's store-houses (1 Chr. 27:25). "(2.) A Levite who taught the law to the people of Judah (2 Chr. 17:8). "(3.) Neh. 12:18. ... Read more about Jehonathan...

Jehoram

"Jehovah-exalted. (1.) Son of Toi, king of Hamath, sent by his" father to congratulate David on the occasion of his victory over Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8:10). "(2.) A Levite of the family of Gershom (1 Ch ... Read more about Jehoram...

Jehoshaphat

Jehovah-judged. (1.) One of David's body-guard (1 Chr. 11:43). "(2.) One of the priests who accompanied the removal of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15:24). "(3.) Son of Ahilud, "recorder" or annalist ... Read more about Jehoshaphat...

Jehoshaphat Valley of

"Mentioned in Scripture only in Joel 3:2, 12. This is the name" given in modern times to the valley between Jerusalem and the "Mount of Olives, and the Kidron flows through it. Here" Jehoshaphat over ... Read more about Jehoshaphat Valley of...

Jehosheba

"Jehovah-swearing, the daughter of Jehoram, the king of Israel." She is called Jehoshabeath in 2 Chr. 22:11. She was the only "princess of the royal house who was married to a high priest," Jehoiada ... Read more about Jehosheba...

Jehovah

The special and significant name (not merely an appellative title such as Lord [adonai]) by which God revealed himself to "the ancient Hebrews (Ex. 6:2, 3). This name, the Tetragrammaton" "of the Gre ... Read more about Jehovah...

Jehovahjireh

"Jehovah will see; i.e., will provide, the name given by Abraham" to the scene of his offering up the ram which was caught in the "thicket on Mount Moriah. The expression used in Gen. 22:14, "in" "th ... Read more about Jehovahjireh...

Jehovahnissi

"Jehovah my banner, the title given by Moses to the altar which" he erected on the hill on the top of which he stood with uplifted hands while Israel prevailed over their enemies the Amalekites (Ex. ... Read more about Jehovahnissi...

Jehovahshalom

"Jehovah send peace, the name which Gideon gave to the altar he" erected on the spot at Ophrah where the angel appeared to him (Judg. 6:24). ... Read more about Jehovahshalom...

Jehovahshammah

"Jehovah is there, the symbolical title given by Ezekiel to" "Jerusalem, which was seen by him in vision (Ezek. 48:35). It was" a type of the gospel Church. ... Read more about Jehovahshammah...

Jehovahtsidkenu

"Jehovah our rightousness, rendered in the Authorized Version," "The LORD our righteousness, a title given to the Messiah (Jer." "23:6, marg.), and also to Jerusalem (33:16, marg.)." ... Read more about Jehovahtsidkenu...

Jehozabad

"Jehovah-given. (1.) The son of Obed-edom (1 Chr. 26:4), one of" the Levite porters. "(2.) The son of Shomer, one of the two conspirators who put king Jehoash to death in Millo in Jerusalem (2 Kings ... Read more about Jehozabad...

Jehozadak

"Jehovah-justified, the son of the high priest Seraiah at the" "time of the Babylonian exile (1 Chr. 6:14, 15). He was carried" "into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar, and probably died in Babylon." "He w ... Read more about Jehozadak...

Jehu

"Jehovah is he. (1.) The son of Obed, and father of Azariah (1" Chr. 2:38). "(2.) One of the Benjamite slingers that joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3). "(3.) The son of Hanani, a prophet of Judah ... Read more about Jehu...

Jehucal

"Able, the son of Shelemiah. He is also called Jucal (Jer. 38:1)." He was one of the two persons whom Zedekiah sent to request the prophet Jeremiah to pray for the kingdom (Jer. 37:3) during the time ... Read more about Jehucal...

Jehudi

"A Jew, son of Nethaniah. He was sent by the princes to invite" "Baruch to read Jeremiah's roll to them (Jer. 36:14, 21)." ... Read more about Jehudi...

Jeiel

Snatched away by God. (1.) A descendant of Benjamin (1 Chr. 9:35; 8:29). "(2.) One of the Levites who took part in praising God on the removal of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 16:5). (3.) 2 Chr. 29:13 ... Read more about Jeiel...

Jemima

"Dove, the eldest of Job's three daughters born after his time of" trial (Job 42:14). ... Read more about Jemima...

Jephthah

"Whom God sets free, or the breaker through, a "mighty man of" "valour" who delivered Israel from the oppression of the" "Ammonites (Judg. 11:1-33), and judged Israel six years (12:7)." "He has been ... Read more about Jephthah...

Jephthahs vow

"(Judg. 11:30, 31). After a crushing defeat of the Ammonites," "Jephthah returned to his own house, and the first to welcome him" "was his own daughter. This was a terrible blow to the victor," "and ... Read more about Jephthahs vow...

Jephunneh

"Nimble, or a beholder. (1.) The father of Caleb, who was" "Joshua's companion in exploring Canaan (Num. 13:6), a Kenezite" (Josh. 14:14). (2.) One of the descendants of Asher (1 Chr. 7:38). ... Read more about Jephunneh...

Jerahmeel

"Loving God. (1.) The son of Hezron, the brother of Caleb (1 Chr." "2:9, 25, 26, etc.)." "(2.) The son of Kish, a Levite (1 Chr. 24:29). "(3.) Son of Hammelech (Jer. 36:26). ... Read more about Jerahmeel...

Jeremiah

Raised up or appointed by Jehovah. (1.) A Gadite who joined David in the wilderness (1 Chr. 12:10). (2.) A Gadite warrior (1 Chr. 12:13). (3.) A Benjamite slinger who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 1 ... Read more about Jeremiah...

Jeremiah Book of

"Consists of twenty-three separate and independent sections," "arranged in five books. I. The introduction, ch. 1. II. Reproofs" "of the sins of the Jews, consisting of seven sections, (1.) ch." 2; ( ... Read more about Jeremiah Book of...

Jericho

"Place of fragrance, a fenced city in the midst of a vast grove" "of palm trees, in the plain of Jordan, over against the place" where that river was crossed by the Israelites (Josh. 3:16). Its "site ... Read more about Jericho...

Jerimoth

Heights. (1.) One of the sons of Bela (1 Chr. 7:7). "(2.) 1 Chr. 24:30, a Merarite Levite. "(3.) A Benjamite slinger who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:5). (4.) A Levitical musician under Heman hi ... Read more about Jerimoth...

Jeroboam

Increase of the people. (1.) The son of Nebat (1 Kings "11:26-39), "an Ephrathite," the first king of the ten tribes," over whom he reigned twenty-two years (B.C. 976-945). He was the "son of a widow ... Read more about Jeroboam...

Jeroham

"Cherished; who finds mercy. (1.) Father of Elkanah, and" grandfather of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1). "(2.) The father of Azareel, the "captain" of the tribe of Dan (1 Chr. 27:22). "(3.) 1 Chr. 1 ... Read more about Jeroham...

Jerubbaal

"Contender with Baal; or, let Baal plead, a surname of Gideon; a" name given to him because he destroyed the altar of Baal (Judg. 6:32; 7:1; 8:29; 1 Sam. 12:11). ... Read more about Jerubbaal...

Jerubbesheth

"Contender with the shame; i.e., idol, a surname also of Gideon" (2 Sam. 11:21). ... Read more about Jerubbesheth...

Jeruel

"Founded by God, a "desert" on the ascent from the valley of the" Dead Sea towards Jerusalem. It lay beyond the wilderness of "Tekoa, in the direction of Engedi (2 Chr. 20:16, 20). It" corresponds wi ... Read more about Jeruel...

Jerusalem

"Called also Salem, Ariel, Jebus, the "city of God," the "holy" "city;" by the modern Arabs el-Khuds, meaning "the holy;" once" the city of Judah (2 Chr. 25:28). This name is in the original "in the ... Read more about Jerusalem...

Jerusha

"Possession, or possessed; i.e., "by a husband", the wife of" "Uzziah, and mother of king Jotham (2 Kings 15:33)." ... Read more about Jerusha...

Jeshaiah

"Deliverance of Jehovah. (1.) A Kohathite Levite, the father of" "Joram, of the family of Eliezer (1 Chr. 26:25); called also" Isshiah (24:21). "(2.) One of the sons of Jeduthum (1 Chr. 25:3, 15). "( ... Read more about Jeshaiah...

Jeshanah

A city of the kingdom of Israel (2 Chr. 13:19). ... Read more about Jeshanah...

Jesharelah

"Upright towards God, the head of the seventh division of" Levitical musicians (1 Chr. 25:14). ... Read more about Jesharelah...

Jeshebeab

"Seat of his father, the head of the fourteenth division of" priests (1 Chr. 24:13). ... Read more about Jeshebeab...

Jesher

"Uprightness, the first of the three sons of Caleb by Azubah (1" Chr. 2:18). ... Read more about Jesher...

Jeshimon

"The waste, probably some high waste land to the south of the" "Dead Sea (Num. 21:20; 23:28; 1 Sam. 23:19, 24); or rather not a" "proper name at all, but simply "the waste" or "wilderness," the" dist ... Read more about Jeshimon...

Jeshua

(1.) Head of the ninth priestly order (Ezra 2:36); called also Jeshuah (1 Chr. 24:11). "(2.) A Levite appointed by Hezekiah to distribute offerings in the priestly cities (2 Chr. 31:15). (3.) Ezra 2: ... Read more about Jeshua...

Jeshurun

"A poetical name for the people of Israel, used in token of" "affection, meaning, "the dear upright people" (Deut. 32:15;" "33:5, 26; Isa. 44:2)." ... Read more about Jeshurun...

Jesse

"Firm, or a gift, a son of Obed, the son of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth" "4:17, 22; Matt. 1:5, 6; Luke 3:32). He was the father of eight" "sons, the youngest of whom was David (1 Sam. 17:12). The phrase" "st ... Read more about Jesse...

Jesus

"(1.) Joshua, the son of Nun (Acts 7:45; Heb. 4:8; R.V.," Joshua). "(2.) A Jewish Christian surnamed Justus (Col. 4:11). "Je'sus, the proper, as Christ is the official, name of our Lord. "To distingu ... Read more about Jesus...

Jether

Surplus; excellence. (1.) Father-in-law of Moses (Ex. 4:18 "marg.), called elsewhere Jethro (q.v.)." "(2.) The oldest of Gideon's seventy sons (Judg. 8:20). "(3.) The father of Amasa, David's general ... Read more about Jether...

Jetheth

"A peg, or a prince, one of the Edomitish kings of Mount Seir" (Gen. 36:40). ... Read more about Jetheth...

Jethlah

"Suspended; high, a city on the borders of Dan (Josh. 19:42)." ... Read more about Jethlah...

Jethro

"His excellence, or gain, a prince or priest of Midian, who" succeeded his father Reuel. Moses spent forty years after his exile from the Egyptian court as keeper of Jethro's flocks. "While the Israe ... Read more about Jethro...

Jetur

"An enclosure, one of the twelve sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25:15)." ... Read more about Jetur...

Jeuel

"Snatched away by God, a descendant of Zerah (1 Chr. 9:6)." ... Read more about Jeuel...

Jeush

Assembler. (1.) The oldest of Esau's three sons by Aholibamah "(Gen. 36:5, 14, 18)." "(2.) A son of Bilhan, grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:10). "(3.) A Levite, one of the sons of Shimei (1 Chr. 23:10 ... Read more about Jeush...

Jew

"The name derived from the patriarch Judah, at first given to one" belonging to the tribe of Judah or to the separate kingdom of "Judah (2 Kings 16:6; 25:25; Jer. 32:12; 38:19; 40:11; 41:3), in" cont ... Read more about Jew...

Jewess

"A woman of Hebrew birth, as Eunice, the mother of Timothy (Acts" "16:1; 2 Tim. 1:5), and Drusilla (Acts 24:24), wife of Felix, and" daughter of Herod Agrippa I. ... Read more about Jewess...

Jezebel

"Chaste, the daughter of Ethbaal, the king of the Zidonians, and" "the wife of Ahab, the king of Israel (1 Kings 16:31). This was" "the "first time that a king of Israel had allied himself by" marria ... Read more about Jezebel...

Jeziel

"Assembled by God, a son of Azmaveth. He was one of the Benjamite" archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3). ... Read more about Jeziel...

Jezreel

"God scatters. (1.) A town of Issachar (Josh. 19:18), where the" kings of Israel often resided (1 Kings 18:45; 21:1; 2 Kings "9:30). Here Elijah met Ahab, Jehu, and Bidkar; and here Jehu" executed hi ... Read more about Jezreel...

Jezreel Blood of

The murder perpetrated here by Ahab and Jehu (Hos. 1:4; comp. 1 Kings 18:4; 2 Kings 9:6-10). ... Read more about Jezreel Blood of...

Jezreel Day of

The time predicted for the execution of vengeance for the deeds of blood committed there (Hos. 1:5). ... Read more about Jezreel Day of...

Jezreel Ditch of

"(1 Kings 21:23; comp. 13), the fortification surrounding the" "city, outside of which Naboth was executed." ... Read more about Jezreel Ditch of...

Jezreel Fountain of

Where Saul encamped before the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 29:1). "In the valley under Zerin there are two considerable springs," "one of which, perhaps that here referred to, "flows from under a" sort ... Read more about Jezreel Fountain of...

Jezreel Portion of

"The field adjoining the city (2 Kings 9:10, 21, 36, 37). Here" Naboth was stoned to death (1 Kings 21:13). ... Read more about Jezreel Portion of...

Jezreel Tower of

One of the turrets which guarded the entrance to the city (2 Kings 9:17). ... Read more about Jezreel Tower of...

Jezreel Valley of

"Lying on the northern side of the city, between the ridges of" "Gilboa and Moreh, an offshoot of Esdraelon, running east to the" Jordan (Josh. 17:16; Judg. 6:33; Hos. 1:5). It was the scene of the s ... Read more about Jezreel Valley of...

Joab

"Jehovah is his father. (1.) One of the three sons of Zeruiah," "David's sister, and "captain of the host" during the whole of" David's reign (2 Sam. 2:13; 10:7; 11:1; 1 Kings 11:15). His "father's n ... Read more about Joab...

Joah

"Jehovah his brother; i.e., helper. (1.) One of the sons of" "Obed-edom (1 Chr. 26:4), a Korhite porter." "(2.) A Levite of the family of Gershom (1 Chr. 6:21), probably the same as Ethan (42). "(3.) ... Read more about Joah...

Joahaz

"(2 Chr. 34:8), a contracted form of Jehoahaz (q.v.)." ... Read more about Joahaz...

Joanna

Whom Jehovah has graciously given. (1.) The grandson of "Zerubbabel, in the lineage of Christ (Luke 3:27); the same as" Hananiah (1 Chr. 3:19). "(2.) The wife of Chuza, the steward of Herod Antipas, ... Read more about Joanna...

Joash

"Whom Jehovah bestowed. (1.) A contracted form of Jehoash, the" "father of Gideon (Judg. 6:11, 29; 8:13, 29, 32)." "(2.) One of the Benjamite archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3). (3.) On ... Read more about Joash...

Job

"Persecuted, an Arabian patriarch who resided in the land of Uz" "(q.v.). While living in the midst of great prosperity, he was" suddenly overwhelmed by a series of sore trials that fell upon him. Am ... Read more about Job...

Job Book of

A great diversity of opinion exists as to the authorship of this "book. From internal evidence, such as the similarity of" sentiment and language to those in the Psalms and Proverbs (see "Ps. 88 and ... Read more about Job Book of...

Jobab

"Dweller in the desert. (1.) One of the sons of Joktan, and" "founder of an Arabian tribe (Gen. 10:29). (2.) King of Edom," "succeeded Bela (Gen. 36:33, 34). (3.) A Canaanitish king (Josh." 11:1) who ... Read more about Jobab...

Jochebed

"Jehovah is her glory, the wife of Amram, and the mother of" "Miriam, Aaron, and Moses (Num. 26:59). She is spoken of as the" "sister of Kohath, Amram's father (Ex. 6:20; comp. 16, 18;" 2:1-10). ... Read more about Jochebed...

Joel

Jehovah is his God. (1.) The oldest of Samuel's two sons appointed by him as judges in Beersheba (1 Sam. 8:2). (See "VASHNI.) (2.) A descendant of Reuben (1 Chr. 5:4, 8). (3.) One" of David's famous ... Read more about Joel...

Joel Book of

"Joel was probably a resident in Judah, as his commission was to" that people. He makes frequent mention of Judah and Jerusalem "(1:14; 2:1, 15, 32; 3:1, 12, 17, 20, 21)." "He probably flourished in ... Read more about Joel Book of...

Joelah

A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:7). ... Read more about Joelah...

Joezer

"Jehovah is his help, one of the Korhites who became part of" David's body-guard (1 Chr. 12:6). ... Read more about Joezer...

Johanan

Whom Jehovah graciously bestows. (1.) One of the Gadite heroes who joined David in the desert of Judah (1 Chr. 12:12). "(2.) The oldest of King Josiah's sons (1 Chr. 3:15). "(3.) Son of Careah, one o ... Read more about Johanan...

John

"(1.) One who, with Annas and Caiaphas, sat in judgment on the" apostles Peter and John (Acts 4:6). He was of the kindred of the high priest; otherwise unknown. "(2.) The Hebrew name of Mark (q.v.). ... Read more about John...

John First Epistle of

"The fourth of the catholic or "general" epistles. It was" "evidently written by John the evangelist, and probably also at" "Ephesus, and when the writer was in advanced age. The purpose of" the apos ... Read more about John First Epistle of...

John Gospel of

"The genuineness of this Gospel, i.e., the fact that the apostle" "John was its author, is beyond all reasonable doubt. In recent" "times, from about 1820, many attempts have been made to impugn" "it ... Read more about John Gospel of...

John Second Epistle of

"Is addressed to "the elect lady," and closes with the words," The children of thy elect sister greet thee; but some would "read instead of "lady" the proper name Kyria. Of the thirteen" verses compo ... Read more about John Second Epistle of...

John the Baptist

"The "forerunner of our Lord." We have but fragmentary and" imperfect accounts of him in the Gospels. He was of priestly "descent. His father, Zacharias, was a priest of the course of" "Abia (1 Chr. ... Read more about John the Baptist...

John Third Epistle of

"Is addressed to Caius, or Gaius, but whether to the Christian of" that name in Macedonia (Acts 19: 29) or in Corinth (Rom. 16:23) or in Derbe (Acts 20:4) is uncertain. It was written for the purpose ... Read more about John Third Epistle of...

Joiada

(whom Jehovah favours) = Jehoiada. (1.) Neh. 3:6. (2.) One of "the high priests (12:10, 11, 22)." ... Read more about Joiada...

Joiakim

"(whom Jehovah has set up) = Jehoiakim, a high priest, the son" "and successor of Jeshua (Neh. 12:10, 12, 26)." ... Read more about Joiakim...

Joiarib

(whom Jehovah defends) = Jehoiarib. (1.) The founder of one of the courses of the priests (Neh. 11:10). "(2.) Neh. 11:5; a descendant of Judah. (3.) Neh. 12:6. "(4.) Ezra 8:16, a "man of understandin ... Read more about Joiarib...

Jokdeam

A city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:56). ... Read more about Jokdeam...

Jokim

"Whom Jehovah has set up, one of the descendants of Shelah (1" Chr. 4:22). ... Read more about Jokim...

Jokmeam

"Gathering of the people, a city of Ephraim, which was given with" its suburbs to the Levites (1 Chr. 6:68). It lay somewhere in "the Jordan valley (1 Kings 4:12, R.V.; but in A.V. incorrectly" Jokne ... Read more about Jokmeam...

Jokneam

"Gathered by the people, (Josh. 19:11; 21:34), a city "of Carmel" "(12:22), i.e., on Carmel, allotted with its suburbs to the" "Merarite Levites. It is the modern Tell Kaimon, about 12 miles" "south- ... Read more about Jokneam...

Jokshan

"Snarer, the second son of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25:2, 3; 1" Chr. 1:32). ... Read more about Jokshan...

Joktan

"Little, the second of the two sons of Eber (Gen. 10:25; 1 Chr." 1:19). There is an Arab tradition that Joktan (Arab. Kahtan) was the progenitor of all the purest tribes of Central and Southern Arabi ... Read more about Joktan...

Joktheel

"Subdued by God. (1.) A city of Judah near Lachish (Josh. 15," "38). Perhaps the ruin Kutlaneh, south of Gezer." "(2.) Amaziah, king of Judah, undertook a great expedition "against Edom (2 Chr. 25:5- ... Read more about Joktheel...

Jonadab

"=Jehon'adab. (1.) The son of Rechab, and founder of the" "Rechabites (q.v.), 2 Kings 10:15; Jer. 35:6, 10." "(2.) The son of Shimeah, David's brother (2 Sam. 13:3). He was a very subtil man. ... Read more about Jonadab...

Jonah

"A dove, the son of Amittai of Gath-hepher. He was a prophet of" "Israel, and predicted the restoration of the ancient boundaries" (2 Kings 14:25-27) of the kingdom. He exercised his ministry "very e ... Read more about Jonah...

Jonah Book of

This book professes to give an account of what actually took place in the experience of the prophet. Some critics have sought "to interpret the book as a parable or allegory, and not as a" history. T ... Read more about Jonah Book of...

Jonas

"(1.) Greek form of Jonah (Matt. 12:39, 40, 41, etc.)." "(2.) The father of the apostles Peter (John 21:15-17) and "Andrew; but the reading should be (also in 1:42), as in the" "Revised Version, "Joh ... Read more about Jonas...

Jonathan

"Whom Jehovah gave, the name of fifteen or more persons that are" "mentioned in Scripture. The chief of these are, (1.) A Levite" descended from Gershom (Judg. 18:30). His history is recorded in 17:7 ... Read more about Jonathan...

Jonathelemrechokim

"Dove of the dumbness of the distance; i.e., "the silent dove in" "distant places", title of Ps. 56. This was probably the name of" some well known tune or melody to which the psalm was to be sung. ... Read more about Jonathelemrechokim...

Joppa

"Beauty, a town in the portion of Dan (Josh. 19:46; A.V.," "Japho), on a sandy promontory between Caesarea and Gaza, and" at a distance of 30 miles north-west from Jerusalem. It is one of the oldest ... Read more about Joppa...

Joram

"=Jeho'ram. (1.) One of the kings of Israel (2 Kings 8:16, 25," 28). He was the son of Ahab. "(2.) Jehoram, the son and successor of Jehoshaphat on the throne of Judah (2 Kings 8:24). ... Read more about Joram...

Jordan

"Heb. Yarden, "the descender;" Arab. Nahr-esh-Sheriah, "the" "watering-place" the chief river of Palestine. It flows from" north to south down a deep valley in the centre of the country. The name des ... Read more about Jordan...

Joseph

Remover or increaser. (1.) The elder of the two sons of Jacob by "Rachel (Gen. 30:23, 24), who, on the occasion of his birth," "said, "God hath taken away [Heb. `asaph] my reproach." "The Lord" "shal ... Read more about Joseph...

Joshua

"Jehovah is his help, or Jehovah the Saviour. The son of Nun, of" "the tribe of Ephraim, the successor of Moses as the leader of" "Israel. He is called Jehoshua in Num. 13:16 (A.V.), and Jesus in" "A ... Read more about Joshua...

Joshua The Book of

Contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua. It consists of three parts: (1.) The history of the conquest of the land (1-12). (2.) The allotment of the land "to the ... Read more about Joshua The Book of...

Josiah

"Healed by Jehovah, or Jehovah will support. The son of Amon, and" his successor on the throne of Judah (2 Kings 22:1; 2 Chr. "34:1). His history is contained in 2 Kings 22, 23. He stands" foremost a ... Read more about Josiah...

Jot

"Or Iota, the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet, used" metaphorically or proverbially for the smallest thing (Matt. "5:18); or it may be = yod, which is the smallest of the Hebrew" letters. ... Read more about Jot...

Jotham

Jehovah is perfect. (1.) The youngest of Gideon's seventy sons. He escaped when the rest were put to death by the order of "Abimelech (Judg. 9:5). When "the citizens of Shechem and the" "whole house ... Read more about Jotham...

Journey

(1.) A day's journey in the East is from 16 to 20 miles (Num. 11:31). "(2.) A Sabbath-day's journey is 2,000 paces or yards from the "city walls (Acts 1:12). According to Jewish tradition, it was" th ... Read more about Journey...

Jozabad

Whom Jehovah bestows. (1.) One of the Benjamite archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:4). "(2.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. 12:20). ... Read more about Jozabad...

Jozachar

"Jehovah-remembered, one of the two servants who assassinated" "Jehoash, the king of Judah, in Millo (2 Kings 12:21). He is" called also Zabad (2 Chr. 24:26). ... Read more about Jozachar...

Jubal

"Jubilee, music, Lamech's second son by Adah, of the line of" "Cain. He was the inventor of "the harp" (Heb. kinnor, properly" "lyre) and "the organ" (Heb. `ugab, properly "mouth-organ" or" "Pan's pi ... Read more about Jubal...

Jubilee

"A joyful shout or clangour of trumpets, the name of the great" semi-centennial festival of the Hebrews. It lasted for a year. "During this year the land was to be fallow, and the Israelites" were on ... Read more about Jubilee...

Juda

"(1.) The patriarch Judah, son of Jacob (Luke 3:33; Heb. 7:14)." "In Luke 1:39; Heb. 7:14; Rev. 5:5; 7:5, the word refers to the" tribe of Judah. "(2.) The father of Simeon in Christ's maternal ances ... Read more about Juda...

Judah

"Praise, the fourth son of Jacob by Leah. The name originated in" "Leah's words of praise to the Lord on account of his birth: "Now" "will I praise [Heb. odeh] Jehovah, and she called his name" "Yehu ... Read more about Judah...

Judah Kingdom of

"When the disruption took place at Shechem, at first only the" tribe of Judah followed the house of David. But very soon after "the tribe of Benjamin joined the tribe of Judah, and Jerusalem" "became ... Read more about Judah Kingdom of...

Judah Tribe of

Judah and his three surviving sons went down with Jacob into "Egypt (Gen. 46:12; Ex. 1:2). At the time of the Exodus, when we" "meet with the family of Judah again, they have increased to the" "numbe ... Read more about Judah Tribe of...

Judah upon Jordan

"The Authorized Version, following the Vulgate, has this" "rendering in Josh. 19:34. It has been suggested that, following" "the Masoretic punctuation, the expression should read thus, "and" "Judah; ... Read more about Judah upon Jordan...

Judas

"The Graecized form of Judah. (1.) The patriarch (Matt. 1:2, 3)." "(2.) Son of Simon (John 6:71; 13:2, 26), surnamed Iscariot, "i.e., a man of Kerioth (Josh. 15:25). His name is uniformly the" "last ... Read more about Judas...

Jude

"= Judas. Among the apostles there were two who bore this name," "(1) Judas (Jude 1:1; Matt. 13:55; John 14:22; Acts 1:13), called" also Lebbaeus or Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18); and (2) "Judas ... Read more about Jude...

Jude Epistle of

"The author was "Judas, the brother of James" the Less (Jude" "1:1), called also Lebbaeus (Matt. 10:3) and Thaddaeus (Mark" "3:18). The genuineness of this epistle was early questioned, and" doubts r ... Read more about Jude Epistle of...

Judea

After the Captivity this name was applied to the whole of the "country west of the Jordan (Hag. 1:1, 14; 2:2). But under the" "Romans, in the time of Christ, it denoted the southernmost of" "the thre ... Read more about Judea...

Judge

"(Heb. shophet, pl. shophetim), properly a magistrate or ruler," rather than one who judges in the sense of trying a cause. This is the name given to those rulers who presided over the affairs of the ... Read more about Judge...

Judges Book of

Is so called because it contains the history of the deliverance and government of Israel by the men who bore the title of the "judges. The book of Ruth originally formed part of this book," but about ... Read more about Judges Book of...

Judgment hall

"Gr. praitorion (John 18:28, 33; 19:9; Matt. 27:27), "common" "hall." In all these passages the Revised Version renders" "palace. In Mark 15:16 the word is rendered "Praetorium" "(q.v.), which is a L ... Read more about Judgment hall...

Judgment seat

"(Matt. 27:19), a portable tribunal (Gr. bema) which was placed" "according as the magistrate might direct, and from which" judgment was pronounced. In this case it was placed on a "tesselated paveme ... Read more about Judgment seat...

Judgment The final

The sentence that will be passed on our actions at the last day "(Matt. 25; Rom. 14:10, 11; 2 Cor. 5:10; 2 Thess. 1:7-10)." "The judge is Jesus Christ, as mediator. All judgment is "committed to him ... Read more about Judgment The final...

Judgments of God

(1.) The secret decisions of God's will (Ps. 110:5; 36:6). (2.) The revelations of his will (Ex. 21:1; Deut. 6:20; Ps. 119:7-175). (3.) The infliction of punishment on the wicked (Ex. "6:6; 12:12; Ez ... Read more about Judgments of God...

Judith

"Jewess, the daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and one of Esau's" "wives (Gen. 26:34), elsewhere called Aholibamah (36:2-14)." ... Read more about Judith...

Julia

A Christian woman at Rome to whom Paul sent his salutations "(Rom. 16:15), supposed to be the wife of Philologus." ... Read more about Julia...

Julius

"The centurion of the Augustan cohort, or the emperor's" "body-guard, in whose charge Paul was sent prisoner to Rome (Acts" "27:1, 3, 43). He entreated Paul "courteously," showing in many" ways a fri ... Read more about Julius...

Junia

"(Rom. 16:7), a Christian at Rome to whom Paul sends salutations" along with Andronicus. ... Read more about Junia...

Juniper

"(Heb. rothem), called by the Arabs retem, and known as Spanish" "broom; ranked under the genus genista. It is a desert shrub, and" abounds in many parts of Palestine. In the account of his "journey ... Read more about Juniper...

Jupiter

The principal deity of the ancient Greeks and Romans. He was worshipped by them under various epithets. Barnabas was "identified with this god by the Lycaonians (Acts 14:12), because" "he was of stat ... Read more about Jupiter...

Justice

Is rendering to every one that which is his due. It has been "distinguished from equity in this respect, that while justice" "means merely the doing what positive law demands, equity means" the doing ... Read more about Justice...

Justice of God

That perfection of his nature whereby he is infinitely righteous "in himself and in all he does, the righteousness of the divine" nature exercised in his moral government. At first God imposes righte ... Read more about Justice of God...

Justification

"A forensic term, opposed to condemnation. As regards its nature," "it is the judicial act of God, by which he pardons all the sins" "of those who believe in Christ, and accounts, accepts, and" "trea ... Read more about Justification...

Justus

"(1.) Another name for Joseph, surnamed Barsabas. He and Matthias" "are mentioned only in Acts 1:23. "They must have been among the" "earliest disciples of Jesus, and must have been faithful to the" ... Read more about Justus...

Juttah

"Extended, a Levitical city in the mountains or hill-country of" "Judah (Josh. 15:55; 21:16). Its modern name is Yutta, a place" about 5 1/2 miles south of Hebron. It is supposed to have been "the re ... Read more about Juttah...

"K"

Kabzeel

"Gathering of God, a city in the extreme south of Judah, near to "Idumaea (Josh. 15:21), the birthplace of Benaiah, one of David's" chief warriors (2 Sam. 23:20; 1 Chr. 11:22). It was called also "Je ... Read more about Kabzeel...

Kadesh

"Holy, or Kadesh-Barnea, sacred desert of wandering, a place on" "the south-eastern border of Palestine, about 165 miles from" "Horeb. It lay in the "wilderness" or "desert of Zin" (Gen. 14:7;" "Num. ... Read more about Kadesh...

Kadesh

"The sacred city of the Hittites, on the left bank of the" "Orontes, about 4 miles south of the Lake of Homs. It is" "identified with the great mound Tell Neby Mendeh, some 50 to 100" "feet high, and ... Read more about Kadesh...

Kadmiel

"Before God; i.e., his servant, one of the Levites who returned" with Zerubbabel from the Captivity (Neh. 9:4; 10:9; 12:8). ... Read more about Kadmiel...

Kadmonites

"Orientals, the name of a Canaanitish tribe which inhabited the" north-eastern part of Palestine in the time of Abraham (Gen. "15:19). Probably they were identical with the "children of the" "east," ... Read more about Kadmonites...

Kanah

Reedy; brook of reeds. (1.) A stream forming the boundary "between Ephraim and Manasseh, from the Mediterranean eastward to" Tappuah (Josh. 16:8). It has been identified with the sedgy "streams that ... Read more about Kanah...

Kareah

"Bald, the father of Johanan and Jonathan, who for a time were" "loyal to Gedaliah, the Babylonian governor of Jerusalem (Jer." "40:8, 13, 15, 16)." ... Read more about Kareah...

Karkaa

"A floor; bottom, a place between Adar and Azmon, about midway" between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea (Josh. 15:3). ... Read more about Karkaa...

Karkor

"Foundation, a place in the open desert wastes on the east of" "Jordan (Judg. 8:10), not far beyond Succoth and Penuel, to the" south. Here Gideon overtook and routed a fugitive band of "Midianites u ... Read more about Karkor...

Kartah

"City, a town in the tribe of Zebulun assigned to the Levites of" the family of Merari (Josh. 21:34). It is identical with Kattath "(19:15), and perhaps also with Kitron (Judg. 1:30)." ... Read more about Kartah...

Kartan

"Double city, a town of Naphali, assigned to the Gershonite" "Levites, and one of the cities of refuge (Josh. 21:32). It was" "probably near the north-western shore of the Sea of Tiberias," identical ... Read more about Kartan...

Kattath

"(Josh. 19:15), a town of Asher, has been identified with Kana el" Jelil. (See [336]CANA.) ... Read more about Kattath...

Kedar

"Dark-skinned, the second son of Ishmael (Gen. 25:13)." "It is the name for the nomadic tribes of Arabs, the Bedouins "generally (Isa. 21:16; 42:11; 60:7; Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:21), who" dwelt in the n ... Read more about Kedar...

Kedemah

"Eastward, the last-named of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25:15)." ... Read more about Kedemah...

Kedemoth

"Beginnings; easternmost, a city of Reuben, assigned to the" Levites of the family of Merari (Josh. 13:18). It lay not far "north-east of Dibon-gad, east of the Dead Sea." ... Read more about Kedemoth...

Kedesh

Sanctuary. (1.) A place in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15:23). Probably the same as Kadesh-barnea (q.v.). "(2.) A city of Issachar (1 Chr. 6:72). Possibly Tell Abu Kadeis, near Lejjun. "(3.) A ... Read more about Kedesh...

Kedron

"The valley, now quite narrow, between the Mount of Olives and" Mount Moriah. The upper part of it is called the Valley of "Jehoshaphat. The LXX., in 1 Kings 15:13, translate "of the" "cedar." The wo ... Read more about Kedron...

Kehelathah

"Assembly, one of the stations of the Israelites in the desert" "(Num. 33:22, 23)." ... Read more about Kehelathah...

Keilah

"Citadel, a city in the lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15:44). David" rescued it from the attack of the Philistines (1 Sam. 23:1-8); "but the inhabitants proving unfaithful to him, in that they" "sought to ... Read more about Keilah...

Kelita

"Dwarf, a Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding the law to the" people (Neh. 8:7; 10:10). ... Read more about Kelita...

Kemuel

"Helper of God, or assembly of God. (1.) The third son of Nahor" (Gen. 22:21). "(2.) Son of Shiphtan, appointed on behalf of the tribe of Ephraim to partition the land of Canaan (Num. 34:24). "(3.) A ... Read more about Kemuel...

Kenath

"Possession, a city of Gilead. It was captured by Nobah, who" called it by his own name (Num. 32:42). It has been identified "with Kunawat, on the slopes of Jebel Hauran (Mount Bashan), 60" miles eas ... Read more about Kenath...

Kenaz

"Hunter. (1.) One of the sons of Eliphaz, the son of Esau. He" "became the chief of an Edomitish tribe (Gen. 36:11, 15, 42)." "(2.) Caleb's younger brother, and father of Othniel (Josh. "15:17), whos ... Read more about Kenaz...

Kenites

"Smiths, the name of a tribe inhabiting the desert lying between" southern Palestine and the mountains of Sinai. Jethro was of "this tribe (Judg. 1:16). He is called a "Midianite" (Num." "10:29), and ... Read more about Kenites...

Kenizzite

(1.) The name of a tribe referred to in the covenant God made with Abraham (Gen. 15:19). They are not mentioned among the "original inhabitants of Canaan (Ex. 3:8; Josh. 3:10), and" "probably they in ... Read more about Kenizzite...

Kerchief

"Mentioned only Ezek. 13:18, 21, as an article of apparel or" ornament applied to the head of the idolatrous women of Israel. The precise meaning of the word is uncertain. It appears to have "been a ... Read more about Kerchief...

Kerenhappuch

"Horn of the face-paint = cosmetic-box, the name of Job's third" "daughter (Job. 42:14), born after prosperity had returned to" him. ... Read more about Kerenhappuch...

Kerioth

Cities. (1.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:25). Judas "the traitor was probably a native of this place, and hence his" name Iscariot. It has been identified with the ruins of "el-Kureitein, ... Read more about Kerioth...

Kesitah

"(Gen. 33:19, R.V., marg., a Hebrew word, rendered, A.V., pl." "pieces of money, marg., "lambs;" Josh. 24:32, "pieces of" "silver;" Job 42:11, "piece of money"). The kesitah was probably" "a piece of ... Read more about Kesitah...

Kettle

"A large pot for cooking. The same Hebrew word (dud, "boiling")" "is rendered also "pot" (Ps. 81:6), "caldron" (2 Chr. 35:13)," basket (Jer. 24:2). It was used for preparing the "peace-offerings (1 S ... Read more about Kettle...

Keturah

"Incense, the wife of Abraham, whom he married probably after" "Sarah's death (Gen. 25:1-6), by whom he had six sons, whom he" sent away into the east country. Her nationality is unknown. She "is sty ... Read more about Keturah...

Key

Frequently mentioned in Scripture. It is called in Hebrew "maphteah, i.e., the opener (Judg. 3:25); and in the Greek New" "Testament kleis, from its use in shutting (Matt. 16:19; Luke" "11:52; Rev. 1 ... Read more about Key...

Kezia

"Cassia, the name of Job's second daughter (42:14), born after" prosperity had returned to him. ... Read more about Kezia...

Keziz

"Abrupt; cut off, a city of the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. 18:21)." ... Read more about Keziz...

Kibrothhattaavah

"The graves of the longing or of lust, one of the stations of the" Israelites in the wilderness. It was probably in the Wady "Murrah, and has been identified with the Erweis el-Ebeirig," "where the r ... Read more about Kibrothhattaavah...

Kibzaim

"Two heaps, a city of Ephraim, assigned to the Kohathite Levites," and appointed as a city of refuge (Josh. 21: 22). It is also called Jokmeam (1 Chr. 6:68). ... Read more about Kibzaim...

Kid

The young of the goat. It was much used for food (Gen. 27:9; 38:17; Judg. 6:19; 14:6). The Mosaic law forbade to dress a kid "in the milk of its dam, a law which is thrice repeated (Ex." 23:19; 34:26 ... Read more about Kid...

Kidron

#NAME? "through the Valley of Jehoshaphat, on the eastern side of" "Jerusalem, between the city and the Mount of Olives. This valley" "is known in Scripture only by the name "the brook Kidron." David ... Read more about Kidron...

Kinah

"An elegy, a city in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15:22). It" "was probably not far from the Dead Sea, in the Wady Fikreh." ... Read more about Kinah...

Kine

"(Heb. sing. parah, i.e., "fruitful"), mentioned in Pharaoh's" "dream (Gen. 41: 18). Here the word denotes "buffaloes," which" fed on the reeds and sedge by the river's brink. ... Read more about Kine...

King

Is in Scripture very generally used to denote one invested with "authority, whether extensive or limited. There were thirty-one" "kings in Canaan (Josh. 12:9, 24), whom Joshua subdued." Adonibezek su ... Read more about King...

Kingdom of God

"(Matt. 6:33; Mark 1:14, 15; Luke 4:43) = "kingdom of Christ" "(Matt. 13:41; 20:21) = "kingdom of Christ and of God" (Eph. 5:5)" "= "kingdom of David" (Mark 11:10) = "the kingdom" (Matt. 8:12;" "13:1 ... Read more about Kingdom of God...

Kingly office of Christ

One of the three special relations in which Christ stands to his people. Christ's office as mediator comprehends three different "functions, viz., those of a prophet, priest, and king. These are" "no ... Read more about Kingly office of Christ...

Kings dale

"Mentioned only in Gen. 14:17; 2 Sam. 18:18, the name given to" "the valley of Shaveh, where the king of Sodom met Abram." ... Read more about Kings dale...

Kings The Books of

The two books of Kings formed originally but one book in the Hebrew Scriptures. The present division into two books was first "made by the LXX., which now, with the Vulgate, numbers them as" "the thi ... Read more about Kings The Books of...

Kinsman

"Heb. goel, from root meaning to redeem. The goel among the" Hebrews was the nearest male blood relation alive. Certain important obligations devolved upon him toward his next of kin. (1.) If any one ... Read more about Kinsman...

Kir

"A wall or fortress, a place to which Tiglath-pileser carried the" Syrians captive after he had taken the city of Damascus (2 Kings "16:9; Amos 1:5; 9:7). Isaiah (22:6), who also was contemporary" "w ... Read more about Kir...

Kir of Moab

"Isa. 15:1. The two strongholds of Moab were Ar and Kir, which" latter is probably the Kir-haraseth (16:7) following. ... Read more about Kir of Moab...

Kirharaseth

"Built fortress, a city and fortress of Moab, the modern Kerak, a" small town on the brow of a steep hill about 6 miles from Rabbath-Moab and 10 miles from the Dead Sea; called also "Kir-haresh, Kir- ... Read more about Kirharaseth...

Kirjath

"City, a city belonging to Benjamin (Josh. 18:28), the modern" "Kuriet el-`Enab, i.e., "city of grapes", about 7 1/2 miles" west-north-west of Jerusalem. ... Read more about Kirjath...

Kirjathaim

Two cities; a double city. (1.) A city of refuge in Naphtali (1 Chr. 6:76). "(2.) A town on the east of Jordan (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:9, 10). It was assigned to the tribe of Reuben (Num. 32:37). In the ... Read more about Kirjathaim...

Kirjatharba

"City of Arba, the original name of Hebron (q.v.), so called from" "the name of its founder, one of the Anakim (Gen. 23:2; 35:27;" Josh. 15:13). It was given to Caleb by Joshua as his portion. "The J ... Read more about Kirjatharba...

Kirjathhuzoth

"City of streets, Num. 22:39, a Moabite city, which some identify" "with Kirjathaim. Balak here received and entertained Balaam," "whom he had invited from Pethor, among the "mountains of the" "east, ... Read more about Kirjathhuzoth...

Kirjathjearim

"City of jaars; i.e., of woods or forests, a Gibeonite town" "(Josh. 9:17) on the border of Benjamin, to which tribe it was" "assigned (18:15, 28). The ark was brought to this place (1 Sam." "7:1, 2) ... Read more about Kirjathjearim...

Kirjathsannah

"City of the sannah; i.e., of the palm(?), Josh. 15:49; the same" "as Kirjath-sepher (15:16; Judg. 1:11) and Debir (q.v.), a" "Canaanitish royal city included in Judah (Josh. 10:38; 15:49)," and prob ... Read more about Kirjathsannah...

Kirjathsepher

"City of books, Josh. 15:15; same as Kirjath-sannah (q.v.), now" "represented by the valley of ed-Dhaberiyeh, south-west of" Hebron. The name of this town is an evidence that the Canaanites "were acq ... Read more about Kirjathsepher...

Kish

A bow. (1.) A Levite of the family of Merari (1 Chr. 23:21; 24:29). "(2.) A Benjamite of Jerusalem (1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36). (3.) A Levite in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29:12). (4.) The great-grandfathe ... Read more about Kish...

Kishion

"Hardness, a city of Issachar assigned to the Gershonite Levites" "(Josh. 19:20), the same as Kishon (21:28)." ... Read more about Kishion...

Kishon

"Winding, a winter torrent of Central Palestine, which rises" "about the roots of Tabor and Gilboa, and passing in a northerly" "direction through the plains of Esdraelon and Acre, falls into" the Me ... Read more about Kishon...

Kiss

"Of affection (Gen. 27:26, 27; 29:13; Luke 7:38, 45);" reconciliation (Gen. 33:4; 2 Sam. 14:33); leave-taking (Gen. "31:28, 55; Ruth 1:14; 2 Sam. 19:39); homage (Ps. 2:12; 1 Sam." 10:1); spoken of as ... Read more about Kiss...

Kite

An unclean and keen-sighted bird of prey (Lev. 11:14; Deut. "14:13). The Hebrew word used, 'ayet, is rendered "vulture" in" "Job 28:7 in Authorized Version, "falcon" in Revised Version. It" "is proba ... Read more about Kite...

Kithlish

"A man's wall, a town in the plain of Judah (Josh. 15:40). It has" been identified with Jelameh. ... Read more about Kithlish...

Kitron

"Knotty, a city of Zebulun (Judg. 1:30), called also Kattath" "(Josh. 19:15); supposed to be "Cana of Galilee." ... Read more about Kitron...

Kittim

(Gen. 10:4). (See [344]CHITTIM.) ... Read more about Kittim...

Knead

To prepare dough in the process of baking (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; Hos. 7:4). ... Read more about Knead...

Kneadingtrough

"The vessel in which the dough, after being mixed and leavened," "was left to swell or ferment (Ex. 8:3; 12:34; Deut. 28:5, 7)." The dough in the vessels at the time of the Exodus was still "unleaven ... Read more about Kneadingtrough...

Knife

"(1.) Heb. hereb, "the waster," a sharp instrument for" "circumcision (Josh. 5:2, 3, lit. "knives of flint;" comp. Ex." 4:25); a razor (Ezek. 5:1); a graving tool (Ex. 20:25); an axe (Ezek. 26:9). "( ... Read more about Knife...

Knock

"Though Orientals are very jealous of their privacy, they never" "knock when about to enter your room, but walk in without warning" or ceremony. It is nearly impossible to teach an Arab servant to kn ... Read more about Knock...

Knop

"Some architectural ornament. (1.) Heb. kaphtor (Ex. 25:31-36)," occurring in the description of the candlestick. It was an "ornamental swell beneath the cups of the candlestick, probably" an imitati ... Read more about Knop...

Koa

"He-camel, occurs only in Ezek. 23:23, some province or place in" "the Babylonian empire, used in this passage along with Shoa" (q.v.). ... Read more about Koa...

Kohath

"Assembly, the second son of Levi, and father of Amram (Gen." "46:11). He came down to Egypt with Jacob, and lived to the age" of one hundred and thirty-three years (Ex. 6:18). ... Read more about Kohath...

Kohathites

The descendants of Kohath. They formed the first of the three "divisions of the Levites (Ex. 6:16, 18; Num. 3:17). In the" journeyings of the Israelites they had the charge of the most "holy portion ... Read more about Kohathites...

Korah

"Ice, hail. (1.) The third son of Esau, by Aholibamah (Gen." 36:14; 1 Chr. 1:35). "(2.) A Levite, the son of Izhar, the brother of Amram, the father of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 6:21). The institution of ... Read more about Korah...

Korahites

That portion of the Kohathites that descended from Korah. (1.) They were an important branch of the singers of the Kohathite division (2 Chr. 20:19). There are eleven psalms (42-49; 84; 85; 87; 88) d ... Read more about Korahites...

Kore

"Partridge. (1.) A Levite and temple-warder of the Korahites, the" "son of Asaph. He was father of Shallum and Meshelemiah," temple-porters (1 Chr. 9:19; 26:1). "(2.) A Levitical porter at the east g ... Read more about Kore...

Korhites

A Levitical family descended from Korah (Ex. 6:24; 1 Chr. 12:6; 26:1; 2 Chr. 20:19). ... Read more about Korhites...

Koz

"Thorn. (1.) A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:8, "Coz;" R.V.," Hakkoz. "(2.) A priest, the head of the seventh division of the priests "(Ezra 2:61; Neh. 3:4, 21; 7:63). In 1 Chr. 24:10 the word has" " ... Read more about Koz...

"L"

Maachah

"Oppression, a small Syrian kingdom near Geshur, east of the "Hauran, the district of Batanea (Josh. 13:13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1" Chr. 19:7). "(2.) A daughter of Talmai, king of the old native populatio ... Read more about Maachah...

Maalehacrabbim

"Ascent of the scorpions; i.e., "scorpion-hill", a pass on the" south-eastern border of Palestine (Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3). It is "identified with the pass of Sufah, entering Palestine from the" "grea ... Read more about Maalehacrabbim...

Maarath

"Desolation, a place in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:59)," "probably the modern village Beit Ummar, 6 miles north of Hebron." ... Read more about Maarath...

Maaseiah

The work of Jehovah. (1.) One of the Levites whom David "appointed as porter for the ark (1 Chr. 15:18, 20)." "(2.) One of the "captains of hundreds" associated with Jehoiada in restoring king Jehoas ... Read more about Maaseiah...

Maasiai

"Work of Jehovah, one of the priests resident at Jerusalem at the" Captivity (1 Chr. 9:12). ... Read more about Maasiai...

Maath

"Small, a person named in our Lord's ancestry (Luke 3:26)." ... Read more about Maath...

Maaziah

Strength or consolation of Jehovah. (1.) The head of the twenty-fourth priestly course (1 Chr. 24:18) in David's reign. "(2.) A priest (Neh. 10:8). ... Read more about Maaziah...

Maccabees

This word does not occur in Scripture. It was the name given to the leaders of the national party among the Jews who suffered in "the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes, who succeeded to the" Syri ... Read more about Maccabees...

Maccabees Books of the

There were originally five books of the Maccabees. The first "contains a history of the war of independence, commencing (B.C." 175) in a series of patriotic struggles against the tyranny of "Antiochu ... Read more about Maccabees Books of the...

Macedonia

"In New Testament times, was a Roman province lying north of" Greece. It was governed by a propraetor with the title of "proconsul. Paul was summoned by the vision of the "man of" "Macedonia" to prea ... Read more about Macedonia...

Machaerus

"The Black Fortress, was built by Herod the Great in the gorge of" "Callirhoe, one of the wadies 9 miles east of the Dead Sea, as a" frontier rampart against Arab marauders. John the Baptist was prob ... Read more about Machaerus...

Machbanai

"Clad with a mantle, or bond of the Lord, one of the Gadite" heroes who joined David in the wilderness (1 Chr. 12:13). ... Read more about Machbanai...

Machir

"Sold. (1.) Manasseh's oldest son (Josh. 17:1), or probably his" "only son (see 1 Chr. 7:14, 15; comp. Num. 26:29-33; Josh." 13:31). His descendants are referred to under the name of "Machirites, bei ... Read more about Machir...

Machpelah

"Portion; double cave, the cave which Abraham bought, together" "with the field in which it stood, from Ephron the Hittite, for a" family burying-place (Gen. 23). It is one of those Bible localities ... Read more about Machpelah...

Madai

"Middle land, the third "son" of Japheth (Gen. 10:2), the name by" which the Medes are known on the Assyrian monuments. ... Read more about Madai...

Madmannah

"Dunghill, the modern el-Minyay, 15 miles south-south-west of" "Gaza (Josh. 15:31; 1 Chr. 2:49), in the south of Judah. The Pal." "Mem., however, suggest Umm Deimneh, 12 miles north-east of" "Beershe ... Read more about Madmannah...

Madmen

"Ibid., a Moabite town threatened with the sword of the" Babylonians (Jer. 48:2). ... Read more about Madmen...

Madmenah

"Ibid., a town in Benjamin, not far from Jerusalem, towards the" "north (Isa. 10:31). The same Hebrew word occurs in Isa. 25:10," "where it is rendered "dunghill." This verse has, however, been" "int ... Read more about Madmenah...

Madness

"This word is used in its proper sense in Deut. 28:34, John" "10:20, 1 Cor. 14:23. It also denotes a reckless state of mind" "arising from various causes, as over-study (Eccl. 1:17; 2:12)," "blind ra ... Read more about Madness...

Madon

"Strife, a Canaanitish city in the north of Palestine (Josh." "11:1; 12:19), whose king was slain by Joshua; perhaps the ruin" "Madin, near Hattin, some 5 miles west of Tiberias." ... Read more about Madon...

Magdala

"A tower, a town in Galilee, mentioned only in Matt. 15:39. In" the parallel passage in Mark 8:10 this place is called "Dalmanutha. It was the birthplace of Mary called the Magdalen," or Mary Magdale ... Read more about Magdala...

Magdalene

"A surname derived from Magdala, the place of her nativity, given" to one of the Marys of the Gospels to distinguish her from the "other Marys (Matt. 27:56, 61; 28:1, etc.). A mistaken notion has" "p ... Read more about Magdalene...

Magic

The Jews seem early to have consulted the teraphim (q.v.) for "oracular answers (Judg. 18:5, 6; Zech. 10:2). There is a" remarkable illustration of this divining by teraphim in Ezek. 21:19-22. We rea ... Read more about Magic...

Magicians

"Heb. hartumim, (dan. 1:20) were sacred scribes who acted as" "interpreters of omens, or "revealers of secret things." ... Read more about Magicians...

Magistrate

A public civil officer invested with authority. The Hebrew "shophetim, or judges, were magistrates having authority in the" "land (Deut. 1:16, 17). In Judg. 18:7 the word "magistrate" "(A.V.) is rend ... Read more about Magistrate...

Magog

"Region of Gog, the second of the "sons" of Japheth (Gen. 10:2; 1" "Chr. 1:5). In Ezekiel (38:2; 39:6) it is the name of a nation," probably some Scythian or Tartar tribe descended from Japheth. "The ... Read more about Magog...

Magormissabib

"Fear on every side, (Jer. 20:3), a symbolical name given to the" "priest Pashur, expressive of the fate announced by the prophet" "as about to come upon him. Pashur was to be carried to Babylon," an ... Read more about Magormissabib...

Mahalaleel

"Praise of God. (1.) The son of Cainan, of the line of Seth (Gen." 5:12-17); called Maleleel (Luke 3:37). "(2.) Neh. 11:4, a descendant of Perez. ... Read more about Mahalaleel...

Mahalath

"A lute; lyre. (1.) The daughter of Ishmael, and third wife of" Esau (Gen. 28:9); called also Bashemath (Gen. 36:3). "(2.) The daughter of Jerimoth, who was one of David's sons. She was one of Rehobo ... Read more about Mahalath...

Mahalath Leannoth Maschil

This word leannoth seems to point to some kind of instrument "unknown (Ps. 88, title). The whole phrase has by others been" "rendered, "On the sickness of affliction: a lesson;" or," Concerning affli ... Read more about Mahalath Leannoth Maschil...

Mahalath Maschil

"In the title of Ps. 53, denoting that this was a didactic psalm," to be sung to the accompaniment of the lute or guitar. Others "regard this word "mahalath" as the name simply of an old air to" "whi ... Read more about Mahalath Maschil...

Mahanaim

"Two camps, a place near the Jabbok, beyond Jordan, where Jacob" "was met by the "angels of God," and where he divided his retinue" "into "two hosts" on his return from Padan-aram (Gen. 32:2). This" ... Read more about Mahanaim...

Mahanehdan

"Judg. 18:12 = "camp of Dan" 13:25 (R.V., "Mahaneh-dan"), a place" "behind (i.e., west of) Kirjath-jearim, where the six hundred" Danites from Zorah and Eshtaol encamped on their way to capture "the ... Read more about Mahanehdan...

Mahath

"Grasping. (1.) A Kohathite Levite, father of Elkanah (1 Chr." 6:35). "(2.) Another Kohathite Levite, of the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29:12). ... Read more about Mahath...

Mahazioth

"Visions, a Kohathite Levite, chief of the twenty-third course of" "musicians (1 Chr. 25:4, 30)." ... Read more about Mahazioth...

Mahershalalhashbaz

"Plunder speedeth; spoil hasteth, (Isa. 8:1-3; comp. Zeph. 1:14)," a name Isaiah was commanded first to write in large characters "on a tablet, and afterwards to give as a symbolical name to a" "son ... Read more about Mahershalalhashbaz...

Mahlah

"Disease, one of the five daughters of Zelophehad (Num. 27:1-11)" "who had their father's inheritance, the law of inheritance" having been altered in their favour. ... Read more about Mahlah...

Mahlon

"Sickly, the elder of Elimelech the Bethlehemite's two sons by" "Naomi. He married Ruth and died childless (Ruth 1:2, 5; 4:9," "10), in the land of Moab." ... Read more about Mahlon...

Mahol

"Dance, the father of four sons (1 Kings 4:31) who were inferior" in wisdom only to Solomon. ... Read more about Mahol...

Mail Coat of

"a corselet of scales, a cuirass formed of pieces of metal" "overlapping each other, like fish-scales (1 Sam. 17:5); also" (38) a corselet or garment thus encased. ... Read more about Mail Coat of...

Mainsail

"(Gr. artemon), answering to the modern "mizzen-sail," as some" "suppose. Others understand the "jib," near the prow, or the" "fore-sail, as likely to be most useful in bringing a ship's" head to the ... Read more about Mainsail...

Makheloth

"Assemblies, a station of the Israelites in the desert (Num." "33:25, 26)." ... Read more about Makheloth...

Makkedah

"Herdsman's place, one of the royal cities of the Canaanites" "(Josh. 12:16), near which was a cave where the five kings who" had confederated against Israel sought refuge (10:10-29). They "were put ... Read more about Makkedah...

Maktesh

"Mortar, a place in or near Jerusalem inhabited by silver" merchants (Zeph. 1:11). It has been conjectured that it was the "Phoenician quarter of the city, where the traders of that" "nation resided, ... Read more about Maktesh...

Malachi

"Messenger or angel, the last of the minor prophets, and the" "writer of the last book of the Old Testament canon (Mal. 4:4, 5," 6). Nothing is known of him beyond what is contained in his book of pr ... Read more about Malachi...

Malachi Prophecies of

The contents of the book are comprised in four chapters. In the Hebrew text the third and fourth chapters (of the A.V.) form but "one. The whole consists of three sections, preceded by an" "introduct ... Read more about Malachi Prophecies of...

Malcam

"(2 Sam. 12:30, Heb., R.V., "their king;" Jer. 49:1, 3, R.V.;" "Zeph. 1:5), the national idol of the Ammonites. When Rabbah was" "taken by David, the crown of this idol was among the spoils. The" "we ... Read more about Malcam...

Malchiah

Jehovah's king. (1.) The head of the fifth division of the priests in the time of David (1 Chr. 24:9). "(2.) A priest, the father of Pashur (1 Chr. 9:12; Jer. 38:1). "(3.) One of the priests appointe ... Read more about Malchiah...

Malchishua

"King of help, one of the four sons of Saul (1 Chr. 8:33). He" perished along with his father in the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31:2). ... Read more about Malchishua...

Malchus

"Reigning, the personal servant or slave of the high priest" Caiaphas. He is mentioned only by John. Peter cut off his right ear in the garden of Gethsemane (John 18:10). But our Lord cured it with a ... Read more about Malchus...

Mallothi

"My fulness, a Kohathite Levite, one of the sons of Heman the" "Levite (1 Chr. 25:4), and chief of the nineteenth division of" the temple musicians (26). ... Read more about Mallothi...

Mallows

"Occurs only in Job 30:4 (R.V., "saltwort"). The word so rendered" "(malluah, from melah, "salt") most probably denotes the Atriplex" "halimus of Linnaeus, a species of sea purslane found on the" "sh ... Read more about Mallows...

Malluch

"Reigned over, or reigning. (1.) A Levite of the family of Merari" (1 Chr. 6:44). "(2.) A priest who returned from Babylon (Neh. 12:2). "(3.) Ezra 10:29. (4.) Ezra 10:32 ... Read more about Malluch...

Mammon

"A Chaldee or Syriac word meaning "wealth" or "riches" (Luke" "16:9-11); also, by personification, the god of riches (Matt." 6:24; Luke 16:9-11). ... Read more about Mammon...

Mamre

Manliness. (1.) An Amoritish chief in alliance with Abraham "(Gen. 14:13, 24)." "(2.) The name of the place in the neighbourhood of Hebron (q.v.) "where Abraham dwelt (Gen. 23:17, 19; 35:27); called ... Read more about Mamre...

Man

"(1.) Heb. `Adam, used as the proper name of the first man. The" "name is derived from a word meaning "to be red," and thus the" first man was called Adam because he was formed from the red "earth. I ... Read more about Man...

Man of sin

"A designation of Antichrist given in 2 Thess. 2:3-10, usually" "regarded as descriptive of the Papal power; but "in whomsoever" "these distinctive features are found, whoever wields temporal" and sp ... Read more about Man of sin...

Manaen

"Consoler, a Christian teacher at Antioch. Nothing else is known" "of him beyond what is stated in Acts 13:1, where he is spoken of" as having been brought up with (Gr. syntrophos; rendered in R.V. " ... Read more about Manaen...

Manasseh

"Who makes to forget. "God hath made me forget" (Heb. nashshani)," Gen. 41:51. (1.) The elder of the two sons of Joseph. He and his brother Ephraim were afterwards adopted by Jacob as his own sons (4 ... Read more about Manasseh...

Mandrakes

"Hebrew dudaim; i.e., "love-plants", occurs only in Gen. 30:14-16" and Cant. 7:13. Many interpretations have been given of this "word dudaim. It has been rendered "violets," "Lilies," "jasmines, "tru ... Read more about Mandrakes...

Maneh

"Portion (Ezek. 45:12), rendered "pound" (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra" "2:69; Neh. 7:71, 72), a weight variously estimated, probably" about 2 1/2 or 3 lbs. A maneh of gold consisted of a hundred "common shek ... Read more about Maneh...

Manger

"(Luke 2:7, 12, 16), the name (Gr. phatne, rendered "stall" in" Luke 13:15) given to the place where the infant Redeemer was laid. It seems to have been a stall or crib for feeding cattle. Stables an ... Read more about Manger...

Manna

"Heb. man-hu, "What is that?" the name given by the Israelites to" the food miraculously supplied to them during their wanderings in the wilderness (Ex. 16:15-35). The name is commonly taken as "deri ... Read more about Manna...

Manoah

"Rest, a Danite, the father of Samson (Judg. 13:1-22, and" 14:2-4). ... Read more about Manoah...

Manslayer

"One who was guilty of accidental homicide, and was entitled to" "flee to a city of refuge (Num. 35:6, 12, 22, 23), his compulsory" residence in which terminated with the death of the high priest. (S ... Read more about Manslayer...

Mantle

"(1.) Heb. `addereth, a large over-garment. This word is used of" "Elijah's mantle (1 Kings 19:13, 19; 2 Kings 2:8, 13, etc.)," which was probably a sheepskin. It appears to have been his only "garme ... Read more about Mantle...

Maoch

"Compressed, the father of Achish, king of Gath (1 Sam. 27:2)." Called also Maachah (1 Kings 2:39). ... Read more about Maoch...

Maon

"Habitation, a town in the tribe of Judah, about 7 miles south of" "Hebron, which gave its name to the wilderness, the district" round the conical hill on which the town stood. Here David hid "from S ... Read more about Maon...

Mara

"Bitter; sad, a symbolical name which Naomi gave to herself" because of her misfortunes (Ruth 1:20). ... Read more about Mara...

Marah

"Bitterness, a fountain at the sixth station of the Israelites" "(Ex. 15:23, 24; Num. 33:8) whose waters were so bitter that they" could not drink them. On this account they murmured against "Moses, ... Read more about Marah...

Maralah

"Trembling, a place on the southern boundary of Zebulun (Josh." "19:11). It has been identified with the modern M'alul, about 4" miles south-west of Nazareth. ... Read more about Maralah...

Maranatha

"(1 Cor. 16:22) consists of two Aramean words, Maran'athah," "meaning, "our Lord comes," or is "coming." If the latter" "interpretation is adopted, the meaning of the phrase is, "Our" "Lord is coming ... Read more about Maranatha...

Marble

"As a mineral, consists of carbonate of lime, its texture varying" from the highly crystalline to the compact. In Esther 1:6 there "are four Hebrew words which are rendered marble:, (1.) Shesh," pill ... Read more about Marble...

Marcheshvan

The post-biblical name of the month which was the eighth of the sacred and the second of the civil year of the Jews. It began with the new moon of our November. It is once called Bul (1 "Kings 6:38). ... Read more about Marcheshvan...

Marcus

"Col. 4:10; Philemon 1:24; 1 Pet. 5:13; R.V., "Mark" (q.v.)." ... Read more about Marcus...

Mareshah

"Possession, a city in the plain of Judah (John. 15:44). Here Asa" "defeated Zerah the Ethiopian (2 Chr. 14:9, 10). It is identified" "with the ruin el-Mer'ash, about 1 1/2 mile south of Beit Jibrin. ... Read more about Mareshah...

Mark

"The evangelist; "John whose surname was Mark" (Acts 12:12, 25)." "Mark (Marcus, Col. 4:10, etc.) was his Roman name, which" gradually came to supersede his Jewish name John. He is called "John in Ac ... Read more about Mark...

Mark Gospel according to

It is the current and apparently well-founded tradition that Mark derived his information mainly from the discourses of Peter. In his mother's house he would have abundant opportunities of obtaining ... Read more about Mark Gospel according to...

Marketplace

"Any place of public resort, and hence a public place or broad" "street (Matt. 11:16; 20:3), as well as a forum or market-place" "proper, where goods were exposed for sale, and where public" assembli ... Read more about Marketplace...

Maroth

"Bitterness; i.e., "perfect grief", a place not far from" Jerusalem; mentioned in connection with the invasion of the Assyrian army (Micah 1:12). ... Read more about Maroth...

Marriage

Was instituted in Paradise when man was in innocence (Gen. "2:18-24). Here we have its original charter, which was confirmed" "by our Lord, as the basis on which all regulations are to be" "framed (M ... Read more about Marriage...

Marriagefeasts

"(John 2:1-11) "lasted usually for a whole week; but the cost of" such prolonged rejoicing is very small in the East. The guests "sit round the great bowl or bowls on the floor, the meal usually" con ... Read more about Marriagefeasts...

Mars Hill

"The Areopagus or rocky hill in Athens, north-west of the" "Acropolis, where the Athenian supreme tribunal and court of" morals was held. From some part of this hill Paul delivered the address record ... Read more about Mars Hill...

Martha

"Bitterness, the sister of Lazarus and Mary, and probably the" "eldest of the family, who all resided at Bethany (Luke 10:38," "40, 41; John 11:1-39). From the residence being called "her" "house," s ... Read more about Martha...

Martyr

"One who bears witness of the truth, and suffers death in the" cause of Christ (Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6). In this sense Stephen was the first martyr. The Greek word so rendered in all "other case ... Read more about Martyr...

Mary

"Hebrew Miriam. (1.) The wife of Joseph, the mother of Jesus," "called the "Virgin Mary," though never so designated in" Scripture (Matt. 2:11; Acts 1:14). Little is known of her personal history. He ... Read more about Mary...

Maschil

"Instructing, occurs in the title of thirteen Psalms (32, 42, 44," etc.). It denotes a song enforcing some lesson of wisdom or "piety, a didactic song. In Ps. 47:7 it is rendered, Authorized" "Versio ... Read more about Maschil...

Mash

"(= Meshech 1 Chr. 1:17), one of the four sons of Aram, and the" name of a tribe descended from him (Gen. 10:23) inhabiting some part probably of Mesopotamia. Some have supposed that they were "the i ... Read more about Mash...

Mashal

"Entreaty, a levitical town in the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 6:74);" called Mishal (Josh. 21:30). ... Read more about Mashal...

Mason

An artificer in stone. The Tyrians seem to have been specially "skilled in architecture (1 Kings 5:17, 18; 2 Sam. 5:11). This" "art the Hebrews no doubt learned in Egypt (Ex. 1:11, 14), where" ruins ... Read more about Mason...

Masrekah

"Vineyard of noble vines, a place in Idumea, the native place of" "Samlah, one of the Edomitish kings (Gen. 36:36; 1 Chr. 1:47)." ... Read more about Masrekah...

Massa

"A lifting up, gift, one of the sons of Ishmael, the founder of" an Arabian tribe (Gen. 25:14); a nomad tribe inhabiting the Arabian desert toward Babylonia. ... Read more about Massa...

Massah

"Trial, temptation, a name given to the place where the" "Israelites, by their murmuring for want of water, provoked" Jehovah to anger against them. It is also called Meribah (Ex. "17:7; Deut. 6:16; ... Read more about Massah...

Mattan

"Gift. (1.) A priest of Baal, slain before his altar during the" reformation under Jehoiada (2 Kings 11:18). "(2.) The son of Eleazar, and father of Jacob, who was the father "of Joseph, the husband ... Read more about Mattan...

Mattanah

"A gift, a station of the Israelites (Num. 21:18, 19) between the" "desert and the borders of Moab, in the Wady Waleh." ... Read more about Mattanah...

Mattaniah

"Gift of Jehovah. (1.) A Levite, son of Heman, the chief of the" "ninth class of temple singers (1 Chr. 25:4, 16)." "(2.) A Levite who assisted in purifying the temple at the reformation under Hezeki ... Read more about Mattaniah...

Mattathias

"Ibid. (1.) The son of Amos, in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke" 3:25). "(2.) The son of Semei, in the same genealogy (Luke 3:26). ... Read more about Mattathias...

Matthan

"Gift, one of our Lord's ancestry (Matt. 1:15)." ... Read more about Matthan...

Matthat

"Gift of God. (1.) The son of Levi, and father of Heli (Luke" 3:24). "(2.) Son of another Levi (Luke 3:29). ... Read more about Matthat...

Matthew

"Gift of God, a common Jewish name after the Exile. He was the" "son of Alphaeus, and was a publican or tax-gatherer at" "Capernaum. On one occasion Jesus, coming up from the side of the" "lake, pass ... Read more about Matthew...

Matthew Gospel according to

"The author of this book was beyond a doubt the Matthew, an" "apostle of our Lord, whose name it bears. He wrote the Gospel of" "Christ according to his own plans and aims, and from his own" "point o ... Read more about Matthew Gospel according to...

Matthias

Gift of God. Acts 1:23. ... Read more about Matthias...

Mattithiah

"Gift of Jehovah. (1.) One of the sons of Jeduthun (1 Chr. 25:3," 21). "(2.) The eldest son of Shallum, of the family of Korah (1 Chr. 9:31). "(3.) One who stood by Ezra while reading the law (Neh. 8 ... Read more about Mattithiah...

Mattock

"(1.) Heb. ma'eder, an instrument for dressing or pruning a" vineyard (Isa. 7:25); a weeding-hoe. "(2.) Heb. mahareshah (1 Sam. 13:1), perhaps the ploughshare or coulter. "(3.) Heb. herebh, marg. of ... Read more about Mattock...

Maul

"An old name for a mallet, the rendering of the Hebrew mephits" "(Prov. 25:18), properly a war-club." ... Read more about Maul...

Mazzaroth

"Prognostications, found only Job 38:32, probably meaning "the" "twelve signs" (of the zodiac), as in the margin (comp. 2 Kings" 23:5). ... Read more about Mazzaroth...

Meadow

"(1.) Heb. ha'ahu (Gen. 41:2, 18), probably an Egyptain word" transferred to the Hebrew; some kind of reed or water-plant. In "the Revised Version it is rendered "reed-grass", i.e., the sedge" or ran ... Read more about Meadow...

Meah

"An hundred, a tower in Jersalem on the east wall (Neh. 3:1) in" the time of Nehemiah. ... Read more about Meah...

Meals

"Are at the present day "eaten from a round table little higher" "than a stool, guests sitting cross-legged on mats or small" "carpets in a circle, and dipping their fingers into one large" dish heap ... Read more about Meals...

Mearah

"A cave, a place in the northern boundary of Palestine (Josh." "13:4). This may be the cave of Jezzin in Lebanon, 10 miles east" "of Sidon, on the Damascus road; or probably, as others think," "Moghe ... Read more about Mearah...

Measure

Several words are so rendered in the Authorized Version. (1.) "Those which are indefinite. (a) Hok, Isa. 5:14, elsewhere" "statute. (b) Mad, Job 11:9; Jer. 13:25, elsewhere "garment." "(c) Middah, th ... Read more about Measure...

Meatoffering

"(Heb. minhah), originally a gift of any kind. This Hebrew word" "came latterly to denote an "unbloody" sacrifice, as opposed to a" "bloody sacrifice. A "drink-offering" generally accompanied it." "T ... Read more about Meatoffering...

Mebunnai

"Construction, building of Jehovah, one of David's bodyguard (2" Sam. 23:27; comp. 21:18); called Sibbechai and Sibbecai (1 Chr. 11:29; 27:11). ... Read more about Mebunnai...

Medad

"Love, one of the elders nominated to assist Moses in the" "government of the people. He and Eldad "prophesied in the camp" (Num. 11:24-29). ... Read more about Medad...

Medan

"Contention, the third son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25:2)." ... Read more about Medan...

Mede

"(Heb. Madai), a Median or inhabitant of Media (Dan. 11:1). In" Gen. 10:2 the Hebrew word occurs in the list of the sons of "Japheth. But probably this is an ethnic and not a personal name," and deno ... Read more about Mede...

Medeba

"Waters of quiet, an ancient Moabite town (Num. 21:30). It was" assigned to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:16). Here was fought the great battle in which Joab defeated the Ammonites and their allies ( ... Read more about Medeba...

Media

"Heb. Madai, which is rendered in the Authorized Version (1)" "Madai, Gen. 10:2; (2) "Medes," 2 Kings 17:6; 18:11; (3)" "Media, Esther 1:3; 10:2; Isa. 21:2; Dan. 8:20; (4) "Mede," only in Dan. 11:1. ... Read more about Media...

Mediator

"One who intervenes between two persons who are at variance, with" a view to reconcile them. This word is not found in the Old "Testament; but the idea it expresses is found in Job 9:33, in" "the wor ... Read more about Mediator...

Meekness

"A calm temper of mind, not easily provoked (James 3:13)." Peculiar promises are made to the meek (Matt. 5:5; Isa. 66:2). The cultivation of this spirit is enjoined (Col. 3:12; 1 Tim. "6:11; Zeph. 2: ... Read more about Meekness...

Megiddo

"Place of troops, originally one of the royal cities of the" "Canaanites (Josh. 12:21), belonged to the tribe of Manasseh" "(Judg. 1:27), but does not seem to have been fully occupied by" the Israeli ... Read more about Megiddo...

Mehetabeel

"Whose benefactor is God, the father of Delaiah, and grandfather" "of Shemaiah, who joined Sanballat against Nehemiah (Neh. 6:10)." ... Read more about Mehetabeel...

Mehetabel

"Wife of Hadad, one of the kings of Edom (Gen. 36:39)." ... Read more about Mehetabel...

Mehujael

"Smitten by God, the son of Irad, and father of Methusael (Gen." 4:18). ... Read more about Mehujael...

Mehuman

"Faithful, one of the eunchs whom Ahasuerus (Xerxes) commanded to" bring in Vashti (Esther 1:10). ... Read more about Mehuman...

Mehunims

"Habitations, (2 Chr. 26:7; R.V. "Meunim," Vulg. Ammonitae), a" people against whom Uzziah waged a successful war. This word is "in Hebrew the plural of Ma'on, and thus denotes the Maonites who" inha ... Read more about Mehunims...

Mejarkon

"Waters of yellowness, or clear waters, a river in the tribe of" "Dan (Josh. 19:46). It has been identified with the river `Aujeh," which rises at Antipatris. ... Read more about Mejarkon...

Mekonah

"A base or foundation, a town in the south of Judah (Neh. 11:28)," near Ziklag. ... Read more about Mekonah...

Melchi

"My king. (1.) The son of Addi, and father of Neri (Luke 3:28)." (2.) Luke 3:24. ... Read more about Melchi...

Melchizedek

"King of righteousness, the king of Salem (q.v.). All we know of" him is recorded in Gen. 14:18-20. He is subsequently mentioned "only once in the Old Testament, in Ps. 110:4. The typical" significan ... Read more about Melchizedek...

Melea

"Fulness, the son of Menan and father of Eliakim, in the" genealogy of our Lord (Luke 3:31). ... Read more about Melea...

Melech

"King, the second of Micah's four sons (1 Chr. 8:35), and thus" grandson of Mephibosheth. ... Read more about Melech...

Melita

"(Acts 27:28), an island in the Mediterranean, the modern Malta." Here the ship in which Paul was being conveyed a prisoner to Rome was wrecked. The bay in which it was wrecked now bears the "name of ... Read more about Melita...

Melons

"Only in Num. 11:5, the translation of the Hebrew abattihim, the" "LXX. and Vulgate pepones, Arabic britikh. Of this plant there" "are various kinds, the Egyptian melon, the Cucumus chate, which" "ha ... Read more about Melons...

Melzar

"Probably a Persian word meaning master of wine, i.e., chief" butler; the title of an officer at the Babylonian court (Dan. "1:11, 16) who had charge of the diet of the Hebrew youths." ... Read more about Melzar...

Memphis

"Only in Hos. 9:6, Hebrew Moph. In Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 46:14," "19; Ezek. 30:13, 16, it is mentioned under the name Noph. It was" "the capital of Lower, i.e., of Northern Egypt. From certain" "rem ... Read more about Memphis...

Memucan

"Dignified, one of the royal counsellors at the court of" "Ahasuerus, by whose suggestion Vashti was divorced (Esther 1:14," "16, 21)." ... Read more about Memucan...

Menahem

"Conforting, the son of Gadi, and successor of Shallum, king of" "Israel, whom he slew. After a reign of about ten years (B.C." "771-760) he died, leaving the throne to his son Pekahiah. His" reign w ... Read more about Menahem...

Mene

"(Dan. 5:25, 26), numbered, one of the words of the mysterious" "inscription written "upon the plaister of the wall" in" Belshazzar's palace at Babylon. The writing was explained by Daniel. (See [391 ... Read more about Mene...

Meni

"Isa. 65:11, marg. (A.V., "that number;" R.V., "destiny")," probably an idol which the captive Israelites worshipped after the example of the Babylonians. It may have been a symbol of "destiny. LXX., ... Read more about Meni...

Meonenim

"(Judg. 9:37; A.V., "the plain of Meonenim;" R.V., "the oak of" "Meonenim") means properly "soothsayers" or "sorcerers," "wizards (Deut. 18:10, 14; 2 Kings 21:6; Micah 5:12). This may" be the oak at ... Read more about Meonenim...

Mephaath

"Splendour, a Levitical city (Josh. 21:37) of the tribe of Reuben" (13:18). ... Read more about Mephaath...

Mephibosheth

"Exterminator of shame; i.e., of idols. (1.) The name of Saul's" "son by the concubine Rizpah (q.v.), the daughter of Aiah. He and" "his brother Armoni were with five others "hanged on a hill" "befor ... Read more about Mephibosheth...

Merab

"Increase, the eldest of Saul's two daughters (1 Sam. 14:49). She" "was betrothed to David after his victory over Goliath, but does" "not seem to have entered heartily into this arrangement (18:2," " ... Read more about Merab...

Meraiah

"Resistance, a chief priest, a contemporary of the high priest" Joiakim (Neh. 12:12). ... Read more about Meraiah...

Meraioth

"Rebellions. (1.) Father of Amariah, a high priest of the line of" "Eleazar (1 Chr. 6:6, 7, 52)." "(2.) Neh. 12:15, a priest who went to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. He is called Meremoth in Neh. 12:3. ... Read more about Meraioth...

Merari

"Sad; bitter, the youngest son of Levi, born before the descent" "of Jacob into Egypt, and one of the seventy who accompanied him" thither (Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16). He became the head of one of the gre ... Read more about Merari...

Merarites

The descendants of Merari (Num. 26:57). They with the "Gershonites and the Kohathites had charge of the tabernacle," "which they had to carry from place to place (Num. 3:20, 33-37;" 4:29-33). In the ... Read more about Merarites...

Merathaim

"Double rebellion, probably a symbolical name given to Babylon" "(Jer. 50:21), denoting rebellion exceeding that of other" nations. ... Read more about Merathaim...

Merchant

"The Hebrew word so rendered is from a root meaning "to travel" "about," "to migrate," and hence "a traveller." In the East, in" "ancient times, merchants travelled about with their merchandise" "fro ... Read more about Merchant...

Mercurius

"The Hermes (i.e., "the speaker") of the Greeks (Acts 14:12), a" "heathen God represented as the constant attendant of Jupiter," and the god of eloquence. The inhabitants of Lystra took Paul "for thi ... Read more about Mercurius...

Mercy

Compassion for the miserable. Its object is misery. By the atoning sacrifice of Christ a way is open for the exercise of "mercy towards the sons of men, in harmony with the demands of" "truth and rig ... Read more about Mercy...

Mercyseat

"(Heb. kapporeth, a "covering;" LXX. and N.T., hilasterion;" "Vulg., propitiatorium), the covering or lid of the ark of the" "covenant (q.v.). It was of acacia wood, overlaid with gold, or" "perhaps ... Read more about Mercyseat...

Mered

"Rebellion, one of the sons of Ezra, of the tribe of Judah (1" Chr. 4:17). ... Read more about Mered...

Meremoth

"Exaltations, heights, a priest who returned from Babylon with" "Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:3), to whom were sent the sacred vessels" (Ezra 8:33) belonging to the temple. He took part in rebuilding the wall ... Read more about Meremoth...

Meribah

Quarrel or strife. (1.) One of the names given by Moses to the "fountain in the desert of Sin, near Rephidim, which issued from" "the rock in Horeb, which he smote by the divine command," because of ... Read more about Meribah...

Meribbaal

"Contender with Baal, (1 Chr. 8:34; 9:40), elsewhere called" "Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 4:4), the son of Jonathan." ... Read more about Meribbaal...

Merodach

"Death; slaughter, the name of a Babylonian god, probably the" "planet Mars (Jer. 50:2), or it may be another name of Bel, the" guardian divinity of Babylon. This name frequently occurs as a surname ... Read more about Merodach...

Merodachbaladan

"Merodach has given a son, (Isa. 39:1), "the hereditary chief of" "the Chaldeans, a small tribe at that time settled in the marshes" "at the mouth of the Euphrates, but in consequence of his" "conque ... Read more about Merodachbaladan...

Merom

"Height, a lake in Northern Palestine through which the Jordan" flows. It was the scene of the third and last great victory gained by Joshua over the Canaanites (Josh. 11:5-7). It is not again mentio ... Read more about Merom...

Meronothite

"A name given to Jehdeiah, the herdsman of the royal asses in the" "time of David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:30), probably as one being" a native of some unknown town called Meronoth. ... Read more about Meronothite...

Meroz

"A plain in the north of Palestine, the inhabitants of which were" severely condemned because they came not to help Barak against Sisera (Judg. 5:23: comp. 21:8-10; 1 Sam. 11:7). It has been "identif ... Read more about Meroz...

Mesha

"Middle district, Vulgate, Messa. (1.) A plain in that part of" the boundaries of Arabia inhabited by the descendants of Joktan (Gen. 10:30). "(2.) Heb. meysh'a, "deliverance," the eldest son of Cale ... Read more about Mesha...

Meshach

"The title given to Mishael, one of the three Hebrew youths who" were under training at the Babylonian court for the rank of Magi (Dan. 1:7; 2:49; 3:12-30). This was probably the name of some Chaldea ... Read more about Meshach...

Meshech

"Drawing out, the sixth son of Japheth (Gen. 10:2), the founder" "of a tribe (1 Chr. 1:5; Ezek. 27:13; 38:2, 3). They were in all" "probability the Moschi, a people inhabiting the Moschian" "Mountain ... Read more about Meshech...

Meshelemiah

"Friendship of Jehovah, a Levite of the family of the Korhites," "called also Shelemiah (1 Chr. 9:21; 26:1, 2, 9, 14). He was a" temple gate-keeper in the time of David. ... Read more about Meshelemiah...

Meshillemoth

Requitals. (1.) The father of Berechiah (2 Chr. 28:12). "(2.) A priest, the son of Immer (Neh. 11:13). ... Read more about Meshillemoth...

Meshullam

Befriended. (1.) One of the chief Gadites in Bashan in the time of Jotham (1 Chr. 5:13). "(2.) Grandfather of Shaphan, "the scribe," in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22:3). "(3.) A priest, father of H ... Read more about Meshullam...

Meshullemeth

"Friend, the wife of Manasseh, and the mother of Amon (2 Kings" "21:19), Kings of Judah." ... Read more about Meshullemeth...

Mesopotamia

"The country between the two rivers (Heb. Aram-naharaim; i.e.," "Syria of the two rivers), the name given by the Greeks and" Romans to the region between the Euphrates and the Tigris (Gen. "24:10; De ... Read more about Mesopotamia...

Mess

A portion of food given to a guest (Gen. 43:34; 2 Sam. 11:8). ... Read more about Mess...

Messenger

"(Heb. mal'ak, Gr. angelos), an angel, a messenger who runs on" "foot, the bearer of despatches (Job 1:14; 1 Sam. 11:7; 2 Chr." 36:22); swift of foot (2 Kings 9:18). ... Read more about Messenger...

Messiah

"(Heb. mashiah), in all the thirty-nine instances of its" "occurring in the Old Testament, is rendered by the LXX." Christos. It means anointed. Thus priests (Ex. 28:41; 40:15; "Num. 3:3), prophets ( ... Read more about Messiah...

Methegammah

"Bridle of the mother, a figurative name for a chief city, as in" "2 Sam. 8:1, "David took Metheg-ammah out of the hand of the" "Philistines" (R.V., "took the bridle of the mother-city"); i.e.," "sub ... Read more about Methegammah...

Methusael

"Champion of El; man of God, a descendant of Cain (Gen. 4:18), so" "called, perhaps, to denote that even among the descendants of" Cain God had not left himself without a witness. ... Read more about Methusael...

Methuselah

"Man of the dart, the son of Enoch, and grandfather of Noah. He" "was the oldest man of whom we have any record, dying at the age" "of nine hundred and sixty-nine years, in the year of the Flood" (Ge ... Read more about Methuselah...

Mezahab

"Water of gold, the father of Matred (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50)," "and grandfather of Mehetabel, wife of Hadar, the last king of" Edom. ... Read more about Mezahab...

Miamin

"=Mijamin, from the right hand. (1.) The head of one of the" divisions of the priests (1 Chr. 24:9). "(2.) A chief priest who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel "(Neh. 12:5), called Mijamin (10:7) ... Read more about Miamin...

Mibhar

"Choice, a Hagarene, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:38);" called also Bani the Gadite (2 Sam. 23:36). ... Read more about Mibhar...

Mibsam

"Fragrance. (1.) One of Ishmael's twelve sons, and head of an" Arab tribe (Gen. 25:13). "(2.) A son of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:25). ... Read more about Mibsam...

Mibzar

"Fortress, one of the Edomitish "dukes" descended from Esau (Gen." 36:42; 1 Chr. 1:53). ... Read more about Mibzar...

Micah

"A shortened form of Micaiah, who is like Jehovah? (1.) A man of" "Mount Ephraim, whose history so far is introduced in Judg. 17," apparently for the purpose of leading to an account of the "settleme ... Read more about Micah...

Micah Book of

The sixth in order of the so-called minor prophets. The superscription to this book states that the prophet exercised "his office in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. If we" reckon from the b ... Read more about Micah Book of...

Micaiah

"Who is like Jehovah?, the son of Imlah, a faithful prophet of" Samaria (1 Kings 22:8-28). Three years after the great battle "with Ben-hadad (20:29-34), Ahab proposed to Jehoshaphat, king of" "Judah ... Read more about Micaiah...

Micha

(1.) 2 Sam. 9:12 =MICAH (2). "(2.) The son of Zabdi, a Levite of the family of Asaph (Neh. "11:17, 22)." ... Read more about Micha...

Michael

Who is like God? (1.) The title given to one of the chief angels "(Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1). He had special charge of Israel as a" nation. He disputed with Satan (Jude 1:9) about the body of "Moses. He ... Read more about Michael...

Michaiah

(1.) The queen-mother of King Abijah (2 Chr. 13:2). (See [397]MAACAH [4]). "(2.) One of those sent out by Jehoshaphat to instruct the people in the law (2 Chr. 17:7). (3.) 2 Kings 22:12. "(4.) The so ... Read more about Michaiah...

Michal

"Rivulet, or who as God?, the younger of Saul's two daughters by" "his wife Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49, 50). "Attracted by the graces of" "his person and the gallantry of his conduct, she fell in love" "w ... Read more about Michal...

Michmash

"Something hidden, a town of Benjamin (Ezra 2:27), east of Bethel" "and south of Migron, on the road to Jerusalem (Isa. 10:28). It" "lay on the line of march of an invading army from the north, on" t ... Read more about Michmash...

Michmethah

"Hiding-place, a town in the northern border of Ephraim and" "Manasseh, and not far west of Jordan (Josh. 16:6; 17:7)." ... Read more about Michmethah...

Michri

"Prize of Jehovah, a Benjamite, the father of Uzzi (1 Chr. 9:8)." ... Read more about Michri...

Michtam

"Writing; i.e., a poem or song found in the titles of Ps. 16;" "56-60. Some translate the word "golden", i.e., precious. It is" "rendered in the LXX. by a word meaning "tablet inscription" or a" "ste ... Read more about Michtam...

Middin

"Measures, one of the six cities "in the wilderness," on the west" "of the Dead Sea, mentioned along with En-gedi (Josh. 15:61)." ... Read more about Middin...

Midian

"Strife, the fourth son of Abraham by Keturah, the father of the" Midianites (Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32). ... Read more about Midian...

Midianite

An Arabian tribe descended from Midian. They inhabited principally the desert north of the peninsula of Arabia. The peninsula of Sinai was the pasture-ground for their flocks. They "were virtually th ... Read more about Midianite...

Midwife

The two midwives mentioned in Ex. 1:15 were probably the superintendents of the whole class. ... Read more about Midwife...

MigdalEdar

"Tower of the flock, a place 2 miles south of Jerusalem, near the" Bethlehem road (Gen. 35:21). (See [402]EDAR.) ... Read more about MigdalEdar...

Migdalel

"Tower of God, a fortified city of Naphtali (Josh. 19:38)," supposed by some to be identical with Magdala (q.v.). ... Read more about Migdalel...

Migdalgad

"Tower of fortune, a town in the plains of Judah, probably the" "modern el-Mejdel, a little to the north-east of Ascalon (Josh." 15:37). ... Read more about Migdalgad...

Migdol

"Tower. (1.) A strongly-fortified place 12 miles from Pelusium," in the north of Egypt (Jer. 44:1; 46:14). This word is rendered "tower in Ezek. 29:10, but the margin correctly retains the" "name Mig ... Read more about Migdol...

Migron

"Precipice or landslip, a place between Aiath and Michmash (Isa." 10:28). The town of the same name mentioned in 1 Sam. 14:2 was to the south of this. ... Read more about Migron...

Mikloth

"Staves. (1.) An officer under Dodai, in the time of David and" Solomon (1 Chr. 27:4). "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:32; 9:37, 38). ... Read more about Mikloth...

Milaiai

"Eloquent, a Levitical musician (Neh. 12:36) who took part in the" dedication of the wall of Jerusalem. ... Read more about Milaiai...

Mildew

"(the rendering of a Hebrew word meaning "to be yellow," "yellowness), the result of cutting east winds blighting and thus" rendering the grain unproductive (Deut. 28:22; 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chr. 6:28). ... Read more about Mildew...

Mile

"(from Lat. mille, "a thousand;" Matt. 5:41), a Roman measure of" "1,000 paces of 5 feet each. Thus the Roman mile has 1618 yards," being 142 yards shorter than the English mile. ... Read more about Mile...

Miletus

"(Miletum, 2 Tim. 4:20), a seaport town and the ancient capital" "of Ionia, about 36 miles south of Ephesus. On his voyage from" "Greece to Syria, Paul touched at this port, and delivered that" "nobl ... Read more about Miletus...

Milk

"(1.) Hebrew halabh, "new milk", milk in its fresh state (Judg." 4:19). It is frequently mentioned in connection with honey (Ex. "3:8; 13:5; Josh. 5:6; Isa. 7:15, 22; Jer. 11:5). Sheep (Deut." "32:14 ... Read more about Milk...

Mill

"For grinding corn, mentioned as used in the time of Abraham" (Gen. 18:6). That used by the Hebrews consisted of two circular "stones, each 2 feet in diameter and half a foot thick, the lower" "of wh ... Read more about Mill...

Millennium

A thousand years; the name given to the era mentioned in Rev. 20:1-7. Some maintain that Christ will personally appear on earth for the purpose of establishing his kingdom at the beginning of this mi ... Read more about Millennium...

Millet

"(Heb. dohan; only in Ezek. 4:9), a small grain, the produce of" the Panicum miliaceum of botanists. It is universally cultivated in the East as one of the smaller corn-grasses. This seed is the "cen ... Read more about Millet...

Millo

"(Heb. always with the article, "the" Millo). (1.) Probably the" "Canaanite name of some fortification, consisting of walls filled" "in with earth and stones, which protected Jerusalem on the north" ... Read more about Millo...

Mincing

"(Heb. taphoph, Isa. 3:16), taking affectedly short and quick" "steps. Luther renders the word by "wag" or "waggle," thus" "representing "the affected gait of coquettish females." ... Read more about Mincing...

Mine

The process of mining is described in Job 28:1-11. Moses speaks of the mineral wealth of Palestine (Deut. 8:9). Job 28:4 is "rightly thus rendered in the Revised Version, "He breaketh open" a shaft a ... Read more about Mine...

Minister

"One who serves, as distinguished from the master. (1.) Heb." "meshereth, applied to an attendant on one of superior rank, as" "to Joshua, the servant of Moses (Ex. 33:11), and to the servant" of Eli ... Read more about Minister...

Minni

"Only in Jer. 51:27, as the name of a province in Armenia, which" was at this time under the Median kings. Armenia is regarded by "some as = Har-minni i.e., the mountainous country of Minni. (See" [4 ... Read more about Minni...

Minnith

"Distribution, an Ammonitish town (Judg. 11:33) from which wheat" was exported to Tyre (Ezek. 27:17). It was probably somewhere in the Mishor or table-land on the east of Jordan. There is a gentle va ... Read more about Minnith...

Minstrel

"(Matt. 9:23), a flute-player. Such music was a usual" accompaniment of funerals. In 2 Kings 3:15 it denotes a player on a stringed instrument. ... Read more about Minstrel...

Mint

"(Gr. heduosmon, i.e., "having a sweet smell"), one of the garden" herbs of which the Pharisees paid tithes (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42). It belongs to the labiate family of plants. The species "most co ... Read more about Mint...

Miracle

An event in the external world brought about by the immediate "agency or the simple volition of God, operating without the use" "of means capable of being discerned by the senses, and designed" to au ... Read more about Miracle...

Miriam

Their rebellion. (1.) The sister of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 2:4-10; 1 Chr. 6:3). Her name is prominent in the history of the Exodus. "She is called "the prophetess" (Ex. 15:20). She took the lead in" th ... Read more about Miriam...

Misdeem

"(Deut. 32:27, R.V.). The Authorized Version reads, "should" "behave themselves strangely;" i.e., not recognize the truth," "misunderstand or mistake the cause of Israel's ruin, which was" due to the ... Read more about Misdeem...

Misgab

"Height, a town of Moab, or simply, the height=the citadel, some" fortress so called; or perhaps a general name for the highlands "of Moab, as some think (Jer. 48:1). In Isa. 25:12, the word is" "ren ... Read more about Misgab...

Mishael

Who is like God! (1.) A Levite; the eldest of the three sons of Uzziel (Ex. 6:22). "(2.) One of the three Hebrew youths who were trained with Daniel "in Babylon (Dan. 1:11, 19), and promoted to the r ... Read more about Mishael...

Mishal

A city of the tribe of Asher (Josh. 21:30; 1 Chr. 6:74). It is "probably the modern Misalli, on the shore near Carmel." ... Read more about Mishal...

Misham

"Their cleansing or their beholding, a Benjamite, one of the sons" of Elpaal (1 Chr. 8:12). ... Read more about Misham...

Misheal

"(Josh. 19:26), a town of Asher, probably the same as Mishal." ... Read more about Misheal...

Mishma

"Hearing. (1.) One of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25:14), and" founder of an Arab tribe. "(2.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4:25, 26). ... Read more about Mishma...

Mishmannah

"Fatness, one of the Gadite heroes who gathered to David at" Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:10). ... Read more about Mishmannah...

Misrephothmaim

"Burning of waters, supposed to be salt-pans, or lime-kilns, or" "glass-factories, a place to which Joshua pursued a party of" Canaanites after the defeat of Jabin (Josh. 11:8). It is "identified wit ... Read more about Misrephothmaim...

Mite

"Contraction of minute, from the Latin minutum, the translation" "of the Greek word lepton, the very smallest bronze of copper" "coin (Luke 12:59; 21:2). Two mites made one quadrans, i.e., the" "four ... Read more about Mite...

Mithcah

"Sweetness, one of the stations of the Israelites in the" "wilderness (Num. 33:28, 29)." ... Read more about Mithcah...

Mithredath

"Given by Mithra, or dedicated to Mithra, i.e., the sun, the" "Hebrew form of the Greek name Mithridates. (1.) The "treasurer" of King Cyrus (Ezra 1:8). "(2.) Ezra 4:7, a Persian officer in Samaria. ... Read more about Mithredath...

Mitre

"(Heb. mitsnepheth), something rolled round the head; the turban" "or head-dress of the high priest (Ex. 28:4, 37, 39; 29:6, etc.)." "In the Authorized Version of Ezek. 21:26, this Hebrew word is" "r ... Read more about Mitre...

Mitylene

"The chief city of the island of Lesbos, on its east coast, in" "the AEgean Sea. Paul, during his third missionary journey," touched at this place on his way from Corinth to Judea (Acts "20:14), and ... Read more about Mitylene...

Mixed multitude

"(Ex. 12:38), a class who accompanied the Israelites as they" "journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, the first stage of the" Exodus. These were probably miscellaneous hangers-on to the "Hebrews, whether ... Read more about Mixed multitude...

Mizar

"Smallness, a summit on the eastern ridge of Lebanon, near which" "David lay after escaping from Absalom (Ps. 42:6). It may," "perhaps, be the present Jebel Ajlun, thus named, "the little"," in contr ... Read more about Mizar...

Mizpah

"Or Miz'peh, watch-tower; the look-out. (1.) A place in Gilead," "so named by Laban, who overtook Jacob at this spot (Gen. 31:49)" on his return to Palestine from Padan-aram. Here Jacob and Laban set ... Read more about Mizpah...

Mizpar

"Number, one of the Jews who accompanied Zerubbabel from Babylon" (Ezra 2:2); called also Mispereth (Neh. 7:7). ... Read more about Mizpar...

Mizraim

"The dual form of matzor, meaning a "mound" or "fortress," the" "name of a people descended from Ham (Gen. 10:6, 13; 1 Chr. 1:8," 11). It was the name generally given by the Hebrews to the land "of E ... Read more about Mizraim...

Mizzah

"Despair, one of the four sons of Reuel, the son of Esau (Gen." "36:13, 17)." ... Read more about Mizzah...

Mnason

"Reminding, or remembrancer, a Christian of Jerusalem with whom" "Paul lodged (Acts 21:16). He was apparently a native of Cyprus," "like Barnabas (11:19, 20), and was well known to the Christians" "o ... Read more about Mnason...

Moab

"The seed of the father, or, according to others, the desirable" "land, the eldest son of Lot (Gen. 19:37), of incestuous birth." "(2.) Used to denote the people of Moab (Num. 22:3-14; Judg. "3:30; 2 ... Read more about Moab...

Moabite

"The designation of a tribe descended from Moab, the son of Lot" "(Gen. 19:37). From Zoar, the cradle of this tribe, on the" "south-eastern border of the Dead Sea, they gradually spread over" "the re ... Read more about Moabite...

Moabite Stone

"A basalt stone, bearing an inscription by King Mesha, which was" "discovered at Dibon by Klein, a German missionary at Jerusalem," in 1868. It was 3 1/2 feet high and 2 in breadth and in "thickness, ... Read more about Moabite Stone...

Moladah

"Birth, a city in the south of Judah which fell to Simeon (Josh." "15:21-26; 19:2). It has been identified with the modern el-Milh," 10 miles east of Beersheba. ... Read more about Moladah...

Mole

"Heb. tinshameth (Lev. 11:30), probably signifies some species of" "lizard (rendered in R.V., "chameleon"). In Lev. 11:18, Deut." "14:16, it is rendered, in Authorized Version, "swan" (R.V.," horned ... Read more about Mole...

Moloch

"King, the name of the national god of the Ammonites, to whom" children were sacrificed by fire. He was the consuming and destroying and also at the same time the purifying fire. In Amos "5:26, "your ... Read more about Moloch...

Money

Of uncoined money the first notice we have is in the history of "Abraham (Gen. 13:2; 20:16; 24:35). Next, this word is used in" "connection with the purchase of the cave of Machpelah (23:16)," and ag ... Read more about Money...

Moneychanger

(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). Every Israelite from twenty years and upwards had to pay (Ex. 30:13-15) into the sacred treasury half a shekel every year as an offering to "Jehovah, and that in ... Read more about Moneychanger...

Month

Among the Egyptians the month of thirty days each was in use "long before the time of the Exodus, and formed the basis of" their calculations. From the time of the institution of the Mosaic law the m ... Read more about Month...

Moon

"Heb. yareah, from its paleness (Ezra 6:15), and lebanah, the" "white (Cant. 6:10; Isa. 24:23), was appointed by the Creator" "to be with the sun "for signs, and for seasons, and for days," "and year ... Read more about Moon...

Mordecai

"The son of Jair, of the tribe of Benjamin. It has been alleged" "that he was carried into captivity with Jeconiah, and hence that" he must have been at least one hundred and twenty-nine years old in ... Read more about Mordecai...

Moreh

"An archer, teacher; fruitful. (1.) A Canaanite probably who" "inhabited the district south of Shechem, between Mounts Ebal and" "Gerizim, and gave his name to the "plain" there (Gen. 12:6)." "Here a ... Read more about Moreh...

Moreh the Hill of

"Probably identical with "little Hermon," the modern Jebel" "ed-Duhy, or perhaps one of the lower spurs of this mountain. It" is a gray ridge parallel to Gilboa on the north; and between the "two lay ... Read more about Moreh the Hill of...

Moreshethgath

"Possession of the wine-press, the birthplace of the prophet" "Micah (1:14), who is called the "Morasthite" (Jer. 26:18). This" place was probably a suburb of Gath. ... Read more about Moreshethgath...

Moriah

"The chosen of Jehovah. Some contend that Mount Gerizim is meant," but most probably we are to regard this as one of the hills of "Jerusalem. Here Solomon's temple was built, on the spot that had" "b ... Read more about Moriah...

Mortar

"(Heb. homer), cement of lime and sand (Gen. 11:3; Ex. 1:14);" "also potter's clay (Isa. 41:25; Nah. 3:14). Also Heb. `aphar," "usually rendered "dust," clay or mud used for cement in building" "(Lev ... Read more about Mortar...

Mosera

"A bond, one of the stations of the Israelites in the wilderness" "(Deut. 10:6), at the foot of Mount Hor. (Comp. Num. 33:37, 38)." "It has been identified with el-Tayibeh, a small fountain at the" b ... Read more about Mosera...

Moseroth

"Bonds, one of the stations in the wilderness (Num. 33:30, 31)," probably the same as Mosera. ... Read more about Moseroth...

Moses

"Drawn (or Egypt. mesu, "son;" hence Rameses, royal son). On the" "invitation of Pharaoh (Gen. 45:17-25), Jacob and his sons went" down into Egypt. This immigration took place probably about 350 "yea ... Read more about Moses...

Mote

"(Gr. karphos, something dry, hence a particle of wood or chaff," etc.). A slight moral defect is likened to a mote (Matt. 7:3-5; "Luke 6:41, 42)." ... Read more about Mote...

Moth

"Heb. `ash, from a root meaning "to fall away," as moth-eaten" garments fall to pieces (Job 4:19; 13:28; Isa. 50:9; 51:8; Hos. 5:12). "Gr. ses, thus rendered in Matt. 6:19, 20; Luke 12:33. Allusion i ... Read more about Moth...

Mouldy

"Of the Gibeonites it is said that "all the bread of their" "provision was dry and mouldy" (Josh. 9:5, 12). The Hebrew word" "here rendered "mouldy" (nikuddim) is rendered "cracknels" in 1" "Kings 14 ... Read more about Mouldy...

Mount

Palestine is a hilly country (Deut. 3:25; 11:11; Ezek. 34:13). West of Jordan the mountains stretch from Lebanon far down into "Galilee, terminating in Carmel. The isolated peak of Tabor rises" "from ... Read more about Mount...

Mount of beatitudes

See [422]SERMON. ... Read more about Mount of beatitudes...

Mount of corruption

"(2 Kings 23:13; Vulg., "mount of offence"), the name given to a" "part of the Mount of Olives, so called because idol temples were" "there erected in the time of Solomon, temples to the Zidonian" "A ... Read more about Mount of corruption...

Mount of the Amalekites

"A place near Pirathon (q.v.), in the tribe of Ephraim (Judg." 12:15). ... Read more about Mount of the Amalekites...

Mount of the Amorites

The range of hills which rises abruptly in the wilderness of "et-Tih ("the wandering"), mentioned Deut. 1:19, 20, "that great" "and terrible wilderness." ... Read more about Mount of the Amorites...

Mount of the congregation

"Only in Isa. 14:13, a mythic mountain of the Babylonians," regarded by them as the seat of the gods. It was situated in the "far north, and in Babylonian inscriptions is described as a" "mountain ca ... Read more about Mount of the congregation...

Mount of the valley

"(Josh. 13:19), a district in the east of Jordan, in the" "territory of Reuben. The "valley" here was probably the Ghor or" "valley of the Jordan, and hence the "mount" would be the hilly" region in ... Read more about Mount of the valley...

Mourn

"Frequent references are found in Scripture to, (1.) Mourning for" the dead. Abraham mourned for Sarah (Gen. 23:2); Jacob for "Joseph (37:34, 35); the Egyptians for Jacob (50:3-10); Israel" "for Aaro ... Read more about Mourn...

Mouse

"Heb. `akhbar, "swift digger"), properly the dormouse, the" "field-mouse (1 Sam. 6:4). In Lev. 11:29, Isa. 66:17 this word is" "used generically, and includes the jerboa (Mus jaculus), rat," "hamster ... Read more about Mouse...

Mowing

"(Heb. gez), rendered in Ps. 72:6 "mown grass." The expression" king's mowings (Amos 7:1) refers to some royal right of early "pasturage, the first crop of grass for the cavalry (comp. 1" Kings 18:5) ... Read more about Mowing...

Moza

A going forth. (1.) One of the sons of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:46). "(2.) The son of Zimri, of the posterity of Saul (1 Chr. 8:36, "37; 9:42, 43)." ... Read more about Moza...

Mozah

"An issuing of water, a city of Benjamin (Josh. 18:26)." ... Read more about Mozah...

Mufflers

"(Isa. 3:19), veils, light and tremulous. Margin, "spangled" "ornaments." ... Read more about Mufflers...

Mulberry

"Heb. bakah, "to weep;" rendered "Baca" (R.V., "weeping") in Ps." "84:6. The plural form of the Hebrew bekaim is rendered "mulberry" "trees" in 2 Sam. 5:23, 24 and 1 Chr. 14:14, 15. The tree here" "a ... Read more about Mulberry...

Mule

"(Heb. pered), so called from the quick step of the animal or its" power of carrying loads. It is not probable that the Hebrews "bred mules, as this was strictly forbidden in the law (Lev." "19:19), ... Read more about Mule...

Murder

"Wilful murder was distinguished from accidental homicide, and" "was invariably visited with capital punishment (Num. 35:16, 18," "21, 31; Lev. 24:17). This law in its principle is founded on the" "f ... Read more about Murder...

Murmuring

"Of the Hebrews in the wilderness, called forth the displeasure" "of God, which was only averted by the earnest prayer of Moses" "(Num. 11:33, 34; 12; 14:27, 30, 31; 16:3; 21:4-6; Ps. 106:25)." Forbi ... Read more about Murmuring...

Murrain

"Heb. deber, "destruction," a "great mortality", the fifth plague" that fell upon the Egyptians (Ex. 9:3). It was some distemper that resulted in the sudden and widespread death of the cattle. It was ... Read more about Murrain...

Mushi

"Receding, the second of the two sons of Merari (Ex. 6:19; Num." 3:20). His sons were called Mushites (Num. 3:33; 26:58). ... Read more about Mushi...

Music

Jubal was the inventor of musical instruments (Gen. 4:21). The Hebrews were much given to the cultivation of music. Their whole history and literature afford abundant evidence of this. After "the Del ... Read more about Music...

Music Instrumental

Among instruments of music used by the Hebrews a principal place "is given to stringed instruments. These were, (1.) The kinnor," "the "harp." (2.) The nebel, "a skin bottle," rendered" "psaltery. (3 ... Read more about Music Instrumental...

Musician Chief

"(Heb. menatstseah), the precentor of the Levitical choir or" "orchestra in the temple, mentioned in the titles of fifty-five" "psalms, and in Hab. 3:19, Revised Version. The first who held" "this of ... Read more about Musician Chief...

Mustard

"A plant of the genus sinapis, a pod-bearing, shrub-like plant," "growing wild, and also cultivated in gardens. The little round" seeds were an emblem of any small insignificant object. It is not men ... Read more about Mustard...

Muthlabben

Occurring only in the title of Psalm 9. Some interpret the words "as meaning "on the death of Labben," some unknown person. Others" "render the word, "on the death of the son;" i.e., of Absalom (2" S ... Read more about Muthlabben...

Muzzle

Grain in the East is usually thrashed by the sheaves being "spread out on a floor, over which oxen and cattle are driven to" "and fro, till the grain is trodden out. Moses ordained that the" ox was n ... Read more about Muzzle...

Myra

"One of the chief towns of Lycia, in Asia Minor, about 2 1/2" miles from the coast (Acts 27:5). Here Paul removed from the "Adramyttian ship in which he had sailed from Caesarea, and" "entered into t ... Read more about Myra...

Myrrh

Heb. mor. (1.) First mentioned as a principal ingredient in the holy anointing oil (Ex. 30:23). It formed part of the gifts "brought by the wise men from the east, who came to worship the" infant Jes ... Read more about Myrrh...

Myrtle

"(Isa. 41:19; Neh. 8:15; Zech. 1:8), Hebrew hadas, known in the" "East by the name as, the Myrtus communis of the botanist." "Although no myrtles are now found on the mount (of Olives)," "excepting i ... Read more about Myrtle...

Mysia

A province in the north-west of Asia Minor. On his first voyage "to Europe (Acts 16:7, 8) Paul passed through this province and" embarked at its chief port Troas. ... Read more about Mysia...

Mystery

"The calling of the Gentiles into the Christian Church, so" "designated (Eph. 1:9, 10; 3:8-11; Col. 1:25-27); a truth" "undiscoverable except by revelation, long hid, now made" "manifest. The resurre ... Read more about Mystery...

"N"

Naam

"Pleasantness, one of the three sons of Caleb, the son of Jephunneh (1 Chr. 4:15). ... Read more about Naam...

Naamah

The beautiful. (1.) The daughter of Lamech and Zillah (Gen. 4: 22). "(2.) The daughter of the king of Ammon, one of the wives of "Solomon, the only one who appears to have borne him a son, viz.," "Re ... Read more about Naamah...

Naaman

"Pleasantness, a Syrian, the commander of the armies of Benhadad" "II. in the time of Joram, king of Israel. He was afflicted with" leprosy; and when the little Hebrew slave-girl that waited on his w ... Read more about Naaman...

Naamathite

"The designation of Zophar, one of Job's three friends (Job 2:11;" "11:1), so called from some place in Arabia, called Naamah" probably. ... Read more about Naamathite...

Naarah

"A girl, the second of Ashur's two wives, of the tribe of Judah" "(1 Chr. 4:5, 6)." ... Read more about Naarah...

Naarai

"Youthful, a military chief in David's army (1 Chr. 11:37)," called also Paarai (2 Sam. 23:35). ... Read more about Naarai...

Naaran

"Boyish, juvenile, a town in Ephraim between Bethel and Jericho" (1 Chr. 7:28). ... Read more about Naaran...

Naarath

"Girl, a town on the boundary between Ephraim and Benjamin (Josh." "16:7), not far probably from Jericho, to the north (1 Chr." 7:28). ... Read more about Naarath...

Nabal

"Foolish, a descendant of Caleb who dwelt at Maon (1 Sam. 25)," "the modern Main, 7 miles south-east of Hebron. He was "very" "great, and he had 3,000 sheep and 1,000 goats...but the man was" "churli ... Read more about Nabal...

Naboth

"Fruits, "the Jezreelite," was the owner of a portion of ground" "on the eastern slope of the hill of Jezreel (2 Kings 9:25, 26)." "This small "plat of ground" seems to have been all he possessed." " ... Read more about Naboth...

Nachon

"Prepared, the owner of a thrashing-floor near which Uzzah was" slain (2 Sam. 6:6); called also Chidon (1 Chr. 13:9). ... Read more about Nachon...

Nadab

"Liberal, generous. (1.) The eldest of Aaron's four sons (Ex." 6:23; Num. 3:2). He with his brothers and their father were consecrated as priests of Jehovah (Ex. 28:1). He afterwards perished with Ab ... Read more about Nadab...

Nagge

"Illuminating, one of the ancestors of Christ in the maternal" line (Luke 3:25). ... Read more about Nagge...

Nahaliel

"Possession, or valley of God, one of the encampments of the" "Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 21:19), on the confines of" "Moab. This is identified with the ravine of the Zerka M'ain, the" "ancie ... Read more about Nahaliel...

Nahallal

"Pasture, a city in Zebulun on the border of Issachar (Josh." "19:15), the same as Nahalol (Judg. 1:30). It was given to the" Levites. It has been by some identified with Malul in the plain "of Esdra ... Read more about Nahallal...

Naharai

"Snorer, a Berothite, one of David's heroes, and armour-bearer of" Joab (1 Chr. 11:39). ... Read more about Naharai...

Nahash

Serpent. (1.) King of the Ammonites in the time of Saul. The inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead having been exposed to great danger "from Nahash, sent messengers to Gibeah to inform Saul of their" "extremi ... Read more about Nahash...

Nahath

"Rest. (1.) One of the four sons of Reuel, the son of Esau (Gen." "36:13, 17). (2.) A Kohathite Levite (1 Chr. 6:26). (3.) A" "Levite, one of the overseers of the sacred offerings of the" temple (2 C ... Read more about Nahath...

Nahbi

"Hidden, one of the twelve spies sent out to explore the land of" Canaan (Num. 13:14). ... Read more about Nahbi...

Nahor

"Snorting. (1.) The father of Terah, who was the father of" Abraham (Gen. 11:22-25; Luke 3:34). "(2.) A son of Terah, and elder brother of Abraham (Gen. 11:26, "27; Josh. 24:2, R.V.). He married Milc ... Read more about Nahor...

Nahshon

"Sorcerer, the son of Aminadab, and prince of the children of" Judah at the time of the first numbering of the tribes in the wilderness (Ex. 6:23). His sister Elisheba was the wife of "Aaron. He died ... Read more about Nahshon...

Nahum

"Consolation, the seventh of the so-called minor prophets, an" Elkoshite. All we know of him is recorded in the book of his "prophecies. He was probably a native of Galilee, and after the" deportatio ... Read more about Nahum...

Nahum Book of

"Nahum prophesied, according to some, in the beginning of the" "reign of Ahaz (B.C. 743). Others, however, think that his" prophecies are to be referred to the latter half of the reign of "Hezekiah ( ... Read more about Nahum Book of...

Nail

"For fastening. (1.) Hebrew yathed, "piercing," a peg or nail of" "any material (Ezek. 15:3), more especially a tent-peg (Ex." "27:19; 35:18; 38:20), with one of which Jael (q.v.) pierced the" "templ ... Read more about Nail...

Nain

"(from Heb. nain, "green pastures," "lovely"), the name of a town" near the gate of which Jesus raised to life a widow's son (Luke "7:11-17). It is identified with the village called Nein," "standing ... Read more about Nain...

Naioth

"Dwellings, the name given to the prophetical college established" by Samuel near Ramah. It consisted of a cluster of separate "dwellings, and hence its name. David took refuge here when he" "fled fr ... Read more about Naioth...

Naked

This word denotes (1) absolute nakedness (Gen. 2:25; Job 1:21; Eccl. 5:15; Micah 1:8; Amos 2:16); (2) being poorly clad (Isa. 58:7; James 2:15). It denotes also (3) the state of one who has "laid asi ... Read more about Naked...

Naomi

"The lovable; my delight, the wife of Elimelech, and mother of" "Mahlon and Chilion, and mother-in-law of Ruth (1:2, 20, 21;" 2:1). Elimelech and his wife left the district of "Bethlehem-Judah, and f ... Read more about Naomi...

Naphish

"Refresher, one of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31)." He was the father of an Arab tribe. ... Read more about Naphish...

Naphtali

"My wrestling, the fifth son of Jacob. His mother was Bilhah," "Rachel's handmaid (Gen. 30:8). When Jacob went down into Egypt," Naphtali had four sons (Gen. 46:24). Little is known of him as an indi ... Read more about Naphtali...

Naphtali Mount

The mountainous district of Naphtali (Josh. 20:7). ... Read more about Naphtali Mount...

Naphtali Tribe of

"On this tribe Jacob pronounced the patriarchal blessing," Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth goodly words (Gen. 49:21). It was intended thus to set forth under poetic imagery the future charact ... Read more about Naphtali Tribe of...

Naphtuhim

A Hamitic tribe descended from Mizraim (Gen. 10:13). Others "identify this word with Napata, the name of the city and" "territory on the southern frontier of Mizraim, the modern Meroe," at the great ... Read more about Naphtuhim...

Napkin

"(Gr. soudarion, John 11:44; 20:7; Lat. sudarium, a" "sweat-cloth), a cloth for wiping the sweat from the face. But" "the word is used of a wrapper to fold money in (Luke 19:20), and" "as an article ... Read more about Napkin...

Narcissus

"Daffodil, a Roman whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16:11). He is supposed" to have been the private secretary of the emperor Claudius. This "is, however, quite uncertain." ... Read more about Narcissus...

Nathan

Given. (1.) A prophet in the reigns of David and Solomon (2 Chr. 9:29). He is first spoken of in connection with the arrangements "David made for the building of the temple (2 Sam. 7:2, 3, 17)," and ... Read more about Nathan...

Nathanael

"Given or gift of God, one of our Lord's disciples, "of Cana in" "Galilee" (John 21:2). He was "an Israelite indeed, in whom was" "no guile" (1:47, 48). His name occurs only in the Gospel of" "John, ... Read more about Nathanael...

Nativity of Christ

The birth of our Lord took place at the time and place predicted by the prophets (Gen. 49:10; Isa. 7:14; Jer. 31:15; Micah 5:2; "Hag. 2:6-9; Dan. 9:24, 25). Joseph and Mary were providentially" "led ... Read more about Nativity of Christ...

Naughty figs

"(Jer. 24:2). "The bad figs may have been such either from having" "decayed, and thus been reduced to a rotten condition, or as" "being the fruit of the sycamore, which contains a bitter juice" "(Tri ... Read more about Naughty figs...

Nazarene

This epithet (Gr. Nazaraios) is applied to Christ only once "(Matt. 2:23). In all other cases the word is rendered "of" "Nazareth" (Mark 1:24; 10:47; 14:67, etc.). When this Greek" "designation was a ... Read more about Nazarene...

Nazareth

"Separated, generally supposed to be the Greek form of the Hebrew" "netser, a "shoot" or "sprout." Some, however, think that the" name of the city must be connected with the name of the hill "behind ... Read more about Nazareth...

Nazarite

"(Heb. form Nazirite), the name of such Israelites as took on" them the vow prescribed in Num. 6:2-21. The word denotes generally one who is separated from others and consecrated to "God. Although th ... Read more about Nazarite...

Neah

"Shaking, or settlement, or descent, a town on the east side of" "Zebulun, not far from Rimmon (Josh. 19:13)." ... Read more about Neah...

Neapolis

"New city, a town in Thrace at which Paul first landed in Europe" (Acts 16:11). It was the sea-port of the inland town of "Philippi, which was distant about 10 miles. From this port Paul" embarked on ... Read more about Neapolis...

Nebaioth

"Height. (1.) Ishmael's eldest son (Gen. 25:13), and the prince" "of an Israelitish tribe (16). He had a sister, Mahalath, who was" one of Esau's wives (Gen. 28:9; 36:3). "(2.) The name of the Ishmae ... Read more about Nebaioth...

Neballat

"Wickedness in secret, (Neh. 11:34), probably the village of Beit" "Nebala, about 4 miles north of Lydda." ... Read more about Neballat...

Nebat

"Sight; aspect, the father of Jeroboam, the king of Israel (1" "Kings 11:26, etc.)." ... Read more about Nebat...

Nebo

Proclaimer; prophet. (1.) A Chaldean god whose worship was introduced into Assyria by Pul (Isa. 46:1; Jer. 48:1). To this idol was dedicated the great temple whose ruins are still seen "at Birs Nimru ... Read more about Nebo...

Nebuchadnezzar

"In the Babylonian orthography Nabu-kudur-uzur, which means" "Nebo, protect the crown! or the "frontiers." In an inscription" "he styles himself "Nebo's favourite." He was the son and" "successor of ... Read more about Nebuchadnezzar...

Nebuchadrezzar

"=Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 21:2, 7; 22:25; 24:1, etc.), a nearer" approach to the correct spelling of the word. ... Read more about Nebuchadrezzar...

Nebushasban

"Adorer of Nebo, or Nebo saves me, the "Rabsaris," or chief" "chamberlain, of the court of Babylon. He was one of those whom" the king sent to release Jeremiah from prison in Jerusalem (Jer. 39:13). ... Read more about Nebushasban...

Nebuzaradan

"the captain of the guard, in rank next to the king, who" appears prominent in directing affairs at the capture of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:8-20; Jer. 39:11; 40:2-5). He showed "kindness toward Jeremiah ... Read more about Nebuzaradan...

Necho II

"An Egyptian king, the son and successor of Psammetichus (B.C." "610-594), the contemporary of Josiah, king of Judah. For some" reason he proclaimed war against the king of Assyria. He led "forth a p ... Read more about Necho II...

Neck

"Used sometimes figuratively. To "lay down the neck" (Rom. 16:4)" is to hazard one's life. Threatenings of coming judgments are represented by the prophets by their laying bands upon the people's nec ... Read more about Neck...

Necromancer

"(Deut. 15:11), i.e., "one who interrogates the dead," as the" "word literally means, with the view of discovering the secrets" of futurity (comp. 1 Sam. 28:7). (See [435]DIVINATION.) ... Read more about Necromancer...

Nedabiah

"Moved of Jehovah, one of the sons of Jeconiah (1 Chr. 3:18)." ... Read more about Nedabiah...

Needle

"Used only in the proverb, "to pass through a needle's eye" (Matt. 19:24; Mark 10:25; Luke 18:25). Some interpret the "expression as referring to the side gate, close to the principal" "gate, usually ... Read more about Needle...

Neginah

"In the title of Ps. 61, denotes the music of stringed" instruments (1 Sam. 16:16; Isa. 38:20). It is the singular form of Neginoth. ... Read more about Neginah...

Neginoth

"I.e., songs with instrumental accompaniment, found in the titles" "of Ps. 4; 6; 54; 55; 67; 76; rendered "stringed instruments," "Hab. 3:19, A.V. It denotes all kinds of stringed instruments, as" "t ... Read more about Neginoth...

Nehelamite

"The name given to a false prophet Shemaiah, who went with the" "captives to Babylon (Jer. 29:24, 31, 32). The origin of the name" "is unknown. It is rendered in the marg, "dreamer." ... Read more about Nehelamite...

Nehemiah

Comforted by Jehovah. (1.) Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7. (2.) Neh. 3:16. "(3.) The son of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1), and probably of the tribe of Judah. His family must have belonged to Jerusalem (Neh. 2:3). "He wa ... Read more about Nehemiah...

Nehemiah Book of

The author of this book was no doubt Nehemiah himself. There are portions of the book written in the first person (ch. 1-7; "12:27-47, and 13). But there are also portions of it in which" Nehemiah is ... Read more about Nehemiah Book of...

Nehiloth

Only in the title of Ps. 5. It is probably derived from a root "meaning "to bore," "perforate," and hence denotes perforated" wind instruments of all kinds. The psalm may be thus regarded as addresse ... Read more about Nehiloth...

Nehushta

"Copper, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem, and the wife of" "Jehoiakin (2 Kings 24:8), king of Judah." ... Read more about Nehushta...

Nehushtan

Of copper; a brazen thing a name of contempt given to the "serpent Moses had made in the wilderness (Num. 21:8), and which" Hezekiah destroyed because the children of Israel began to "regard it as an ... Read more about Nehushtan...

Neiel

"Dwelling-place of God, a town in the territory of Asher, near" its southern border (Josh. 19:27). It has been identified with "the ruin Y'anin, near the outlet of the Wady esh Sha-ghur, less" "than ... Read more about Neiel...

Nekeb

"Cavern, a town on the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. 19:33). It has" "with probability, been identified with Seiyadeh, nearly 2 miles" "east of Bessum, a ruin half way between Tiberias and Mount" Tabor ... Read more about Nekeb...

Nemuel

"Day of God. (1.) One of Simeon's five sons (1 Chr. 4:24), called" "also Jemuel (Gen. 46:10). (2.) A Reubenite, a son of Eliab, and" brother of Dathan and Abiram (Num. 26:9). ... Read more about Nemuel...

Nephilim

"(Gen. 6:4; Num. 13:33, R.V.), giants, the Hebrew word left" "untranslated by the Revisers, the name of one of the Canaanitish" "tribes. The Revisers have, however, translated the Hebrew" "gibborim, ... Read more about Nephilim...

Nephtoah

"Opened, a fountain and a stream issuing from it on the border" "between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 15:8, 9; 18:15). It has been" "identified with `Ain Lifta, a spring about 2 1/2 miles" "north-west o ... Read more about Nephtoah...

Ner

"Light, the father of Kish (1 Chr. 8:33). 1 Sam. 14:51 should be" "read, "Kish, the father of Saul, and Ner, the father of Abner," "were the sons of Abiel." And hence this Kish and Ner were" "brother ... Read more about Ner...

Nereus

A Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent his salutation (Rom. 16:15). ... Read more about Nereus...

Nergal

"The great dog; that is, lion, one of the chief gods of the" "Assyrians and Babylonians (2 Kings 17:30), the god of war and" hunting. He is connected with Cutha as its tutelary deity. ... Read more about Nergal...

Nergalsharezer

"Nergal, protect the king! (1.) One of the "princes of the king" of Babylon who accompanied him in his last expedition against "Jerusalem" (Jer. 39:3, 13)." "(2.) Another of the "princes," who bore t ... Read more about Nergalsharezer...

Nero

"Occurs only in the superscription (which is probably spurious," and is altogether omitted in the R.V.) to the Second Epistle to Timothy. He became emperor of Rome when he was about seventeen "years ... Read more about Nero...

Net

"In use among the Hebrews for fishing, hunting, and fowling. The" fishing-net was probably constructed after the form of that used by the Egyptians (Isa. 19:8). There were three kinds of nets. "(1.) ... Read more about Net...

Nethaneel

"Given of God. (1.) The son of Zuar, chief of the tribe of" Issachar at the Exodus (Num. 1:8; 2:5). "(2.) One of David's brothers (1 Chr. 2:14). (3.) A priest who blew the trumpet before the ark when ... Read more about Nethaneel...

Nethaniah

"Given of Jehovah. (1.) One of Asaph's sons, appointed by David" "to minister in the temple (1 Chr. 25:2, 12)." "(2.) A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law (2 Chr. 17:8). (3.) Jer. 36:14. "(4 ... Read more about Nethaniah...

Nethinim

The name given to the hereditary temple servants in all the "post-Exilian books of Scripture. The word means given, i.e.," "those set apart, viz., to the menial work of the sanctuary for" "the Levite ... Read more about Nethinim...

Netophah

"Distillation; dropping, a town in Judah, in the neighbourhood," "probably, of Bethlehem (Neh. 7:26; 1 Chr. 2:54). Two of David's" "guards were Netophathites (1 Chr. 27:13, 15). It has been" "identif ... Read more about Netophah...

Nettle

"(1.) Heb. haral, "pricking" or "burning," Prov. 24:30, 31 (R.V." "marg., "wild vetches"); Job 30:7; Zeph. 2:9. Many have supposed" "that some thorny or prickly plant is intended by this word, such" ... Read more about Nettle...

New Moon Feast of

Special services were appointed for the commencement of a month (Num. 28:11-15; 10:10). (See [437]FESTIVALS.) ... Read more about New Moon Feast of...

New Testament

"(Luke 22:20), rather "New Covenant," in contrast to the old" "covenant of works, which is superseded. "The covenant of grace" is called new; it succeeds to the old broken covenant of works. "It is e ... Read more about New Testament...

Neziah

"Victory; pure, Ezra 2:54; Neh. 7:56." ... Read more about Neziah...

Nezib

"A town in the "plain" of Judah. It has been identified with Beit" "Nuzib, about 14 miles south-west of Jerusalem, in the Wady Sur" (Josh. 15:43). ... Read more about Nezib...

Nibhaz

"Barker, the name of an idol, supposed to be an evil demon of the" "Zabians. It was set up in Samaria by the Avites (2 Kings 17:31)," probably in the form of a dog. ... Read more about Nibhaz...

Nibshan

"Fertile; light soil, a city somewhere "in the wilderness" of" "Judah (Josh. 15:62), probably near Engedi." ... Read more about Nibshan...

Nicanor

"Conqueror, one of the seven deacons appointed in the apostolic" Church (Acts 6:1-6). Nothing further is known of him. ... Read more about Nicanor...

Nicodemus

"The people is victor, a Pharisee and a member of the Sanhedrin." He is first noticed as visiting Jesus by night (John 3:1-21) for "the purpose of learning more of his doctrines, which our Lord" "the ... Read more about Nicodemus...

Nicolaitanes

The church at Ephesus (Rev. 2:6) is commended for hating the "deeds of the Nicolaitanes, and the church of Pergamos is" "blamed for having them who hold their "doctrines" (15). They" "were seemingly ... Read more about Nicolaitanes...

Nicolas

"The victory of the people, a proselyte of Antioch, one of the" seven deacons (Acts 6:5). ... Read more about Nicolas...

Nicopolis

"City of victory, where Paul intended to winter (Titus 3:12)." There were several cities of this name. The one here referred to "was most probably that in Epirus, which was built by Augustus" Caesar ... Read more about Nicopolis...

Niger

"Black, a surname of Simeon (Acts 13:1). He was probably so" called from his dark complexion. ... Read more about Niger...

Nighthawk

(Heb. tahmas) occurs only in the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15). This was supposed to be the night-jar "(Caprimulgus), allied to the swifts. The Hebrew word is derived" "from a root ... Read more about Nighthawk...

Nile

"Dark; blue, not found in Scripture, but frequently referred to" "in the Old Testament under the name of Sihor, i.e., "the black" "stream" (Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18) or simply "the river" (Gen. 41:1;" "E ... Read more about Nile...

Nimrah

"Pure, a city on the east of Jordan (Num. 32:3); probably the" same as Beth-nimrah (Josh. 13:27). It has been identified with "the Nahr Nimrin, at one of the fords of Jordan, not far from" Jericho. ... Read more about Nimrah...

Nimrim Waters of

"The stream of the leopards, a stream in Moab (Isa. 15:6; Jer." "48:34); probably the modern Wady en-Nemeirah, a rich, verdant" spot at the south-eastern end of the Dead Sea. ... Read more about Nimrim Waters of...

Nimrod

"Firm, a descendant of Cush, the son of Ham. He was the first who" "claimed to be a "mighty one in the earth." Babel was the" "beginning of his kingdom, which he gradually enlarged (Gen." "10:8-10). ... Read more about Nimrod...

Nimshi

"Saved. Jehu was "the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi" (2" Kings 9:2; comp. 1 Kings 19:16). ... Read more about Nimshi...

Nineveh

"First mentioned in Gen. 10:11, which is rendered in the Revised" "Version, "He [i.e., Nimrod] went forth into Assyria and builded" "Nineveh." It is not again noticed till the days of Jonah, when" "i ... Read more about Nineveh...

Nisan

"Month of flowers, (Neh. 2:1) the first month of the Jewish" "sacred year. (See [442]ABIB.) Assyrian nisannu, "beginning." ... Read more about Nisan...

Nisroch

"Probably connected with the Hebrew word nesher, an eagle. An" "Assyrian god, supposed to be that represented with the head of" an eagle. Sennacherib was killed in the temple of this idol (2 Kings 19 ... Read more about Nisroch...

Nitre

"(Prov. 25:20; R.V. marg., "soda"), properly "natron," a" "substance so called because, rising from the bottom of the Lake" "Natron in Egypt, it becomes dry and hard in the sun, and is the" soda whic ... Read more about Nitre...

"Or No-A'mon, the home of Amon, the name of Thebes, the ancient" "capital of what is called the Middle Empire, in Upper or" "Southern Egypt. "The multitude of No" (Jer. 46:25) is more" "correctly ren ... Read more about No...

Noadiah

Meeting with the Lord. (1.) A Levite who returned from Babylon (Ezra 8:33). "(2.) A false prophetess who assisted Tobiah and Sanballat "against the Jews (Neh. 6:14). Being bribed by them, she tried t ... Read more about Noadiah...

Noah

"Rest, (Heb. Noah) the grandson of Methuselah (Gen. 5:25-29), who" "was for two hundred and fifty years contemporary with Adam, and" "the son of Lamech, who was about fifty years old at the time of" ... Read more about Noah...

Nob

"High place, a city of the priests, first mentioned in the" history of David's wanderings (1 Sam. 21:1). Here the tabernacle "was then standing, and here Ahimelech the priest resided. (See" [444]AHIM ... Read more about Nob...

Nobah

Howling. (1.) Num. 32:42. "(2.) The name given to Kenath (q.v.) by Nobah when he conquered it. It was on the east of Gilead (Judg. 8:11). ... Read more about Nobah...

Nobleman

"(Gr. basilikos, i.e., "king's man"), an officer of state (John" 4:49) in the service of Herod Antipas. He is supposed to have "been the Chuza, Herod's steward, whose wife was one of those" "women wh ... Read more about Nobleman...

Nod

"Exile; wandering; unrest, a name given to the country to which" Cain fled (Gen. 4:16). It lay on the east of Eden. ... Read more about Nod...

Nodab

"Noble, probably a tribe descended from one of the sons of" "Ishmael, with whom the trans-Jordanic tribes made war (1 Chr." 5:19). ... Read more about Nodab...

Nogah

"Splendour, one of David's sons, born at Jerusalem (1 Chr. 3:7)." ... Read more about Nogah...

Noph

The Hebrew name of an Egyptian city (Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; "44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 30:13, 16). In Hos. 9:6 the Hebrew name" "is Moph, and is translated "Memphis," which is its Greek and" Latin form. ... Read more about Noph...

Nophah

"Blast, a city of Moab which was occupied by the Amorites (Num." 21:30). ... Read more about Nophah...

North country

A general name for the countries that lay north of Palestine. Most of the invading armies entered Palestine from the north "(Isa. 41:25; Jer. 1:14, 15; 50:3, 9, 41; 51:48; Ezek. 26:7)." ... Read more about North country...

Northward

"(Heb. tsaphon), a "hidden" or "dark place," as opposed to the" sunny south (Deut. 3:27). A Hebrew in speaking of the points of the compass was considered as always having his face to the "east, and ... Read more about Northward...

Nosejewels

"Only mentioned in Isa. 3:21, although refered to in Gen. 24:47," "Prov. 11:22, Hos. 2:13. They were among the most valued of" "ancient female ornaments. They "were made of ivory or metal, and" "occa ... Read more about Nosejewels...

Numbering of the people

Besides the numbering of the tribes mentioned in the history of "the wanderings in the wilderness, we have an account of a" "general census of the whole nation from Dan to Beersheba, which" David gav ... Read more about Numbering of the people...

Numbers Book of

"The fourth of the books of the Pentateuch, called in the Hebrew" "be-midbar, i.e., "in the wilderness." In the LXX. version it is" "called "Numbers," and this name is now the usual title of the" boo ... Read more about Numbers Book of...

Nun

Beyond the fact that he was the father of Joshua nothing more is known of him (Ex. 33:11). ... Read more about Nun...

Nuts

Were among the presents Jacob sent into Egypt for the purpose of conciliating Joseph (Gen. 43:11). This was the fruit of the "pistachio tree, which resembles the sumac. It is of the size of" "an oliv ... Read more about Nuts...

Nymphas

"Nymph, saluted by Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians as a" member of the church of Laodicea (Col. 4:15). ... Read more about Nymphas...

"O"

Oak

"There are six Hebrew words rendered "oak." "(1.) `El occurs only in the word El-paran (Gen. 14:6). The LXX. "renders by "terebinth." In the plural form this word occurs in" "Isa. 1:29; 57:5 (A.V. ma ... Read more about Oak...

Oath

"A solemn appeal to God, permitted on fitting occasions (Deut." "6:13; Jer. 4:2), in various forms (Gen. 16:5; 2 Sam. 12:5; Ruth" "1:17; Hos. 4:15; Rom. 1:9), and taken in different ways (Gen." 14:22 ... Read more about Oath...

Obadiah

Servant of the Lord. (1.) An Israelite who was chief in the household of King Ahab (1 Kings 18:3). Amid great spiritual "degeneracy he maintained his fidelity to God, and interposed to" "protect The ... Read more about Obadiah...

Obadiah Book of

"Consists of one chapter, "concerning Edom," its impending doom" "(1:1-16), and the restoration of Israel (1:17-21). This is the" shortest book of the Old Testament. "There are on record the account ... Read more about Obadiah Book of...

Obal

"Stripped, the eight son of Joktan (Gen. 10:28); called also Ebal" (1 Chr. 1:22). ... Read more about Obal...

Obed

"Serving; worshipping. (1.) A son of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:21," "22), and the grandfather of David (Matt. 1:5)." "(2.) 1 Chr. 2:34-38. (3.) 1 Chr. 26:7. "(4.) 2 Chr. 23:1. ... Read more about Obed...

ObedEdom

"Servant of Edom. (1.) "The Gittite" (probably so called because" "he was a native of Gath-rimmon), a Levite of the family of the" "Korhites (1 Chr. 26:1, 4-8), to whom was specially intrusted the" c ... Read more about ObedEdom...

Obeisance

Homage or reverence to any one (Gen. 37:7; 43:28). ... Read more about Obeisance...

Obil

"A keeper of camels, an Ishmaelite who was "over the camels" in" the time of David (1 Chr. 27:30). ... Read more about Obil...

Oboth

"Bottles, an encampment of the Israelites during the wanderings" "in the wilderness (Num. 33:43), the first after the setting up" of the brazen serpent. ... Read more about Oboth...

Oded

"Restoring, or setting up. (1.) Father of the prophet Azariah (2" "Chr. 15:1, 8)." "(2.) A prophet in the time of Ahaz and Pekah (2 Chr. 28:9-15). ... Read more about Oded...

Offence

(1.) An injury or wrong done to one (1 Sam. 25:31; Rom. 5:15). "(2.) A stumbling-block or cause of temptation (Isa. 8:14; Matt. "16:23; 18:7). Greek skandalon, properly that at which one" "stumbles o ... Read more about Offence...

Offering

"An oblation, dedicated to God. Thus Cain consecrated to God of" "the first-fruits of the earth, and Abel of the firstlings of the" "flock (Gen. 4:3, 4). Under the Levitical system different kinds" " ... Read more about Offering...

"Gigantic, the king of Bashan, who was defeated by Moses in a" "pitched battle at Edrei, and was slain along with his sons" "(Deut. 1:4), and whose kingdom was given to the tribes of Reuben" and Gad ... Read more about Og...

Ohad

"United, or power, the third son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10)." ... Read more about Ohad...

Ohel

"A house; tent, the fourth son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:20)." ... Read more about Ohel...

Oil

Only olive oil seems to have been used among the Hebrews. It was used for many purposes: for anointing the body or the hair (Ex. 29:7; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 23:5; 92:10; 104:15; Luke 7:46); in some "of th ... Read more about Oil...

Oiltree

"(Isa. 41:19; R.V. marg., "oleaster"), Heb. `etz shemen, rendered" "olive tree in 1 Kings 6:23, 31, 32, 33 (R.V., "olive wood")" "and "pine branches" in Neh. 8:15 (R.V., "branches of wild" "olive"), ... Read more about Oiltree...

Ointment

"Various fragrant preparations, also compounds for medical" "purposes, are so called (Ex. 30:25; Ps. 133:2; Isa. 1:6; Amos" 6:6; John 12:3; Rev. 18:13). ... Read more about Ointment...

Old gate

"One of the gates in the north wall of Jerusalem, so called" because built by the Jebusites (Neh. 3:6; 12:39). ... Read more about Old gate...

Olive

The fruit of the olive-tree. This tree yielded oil which was highly valued. The best oil was from olives that were plucked "before being fully ripe, and then beaten or squeezed (Deut." "24:20; Isa. 1 ... Read more about Olive...

Olivetree

Is frequently mentioned in Scripture. The dove from the ark brought an olive-branch to Noah (Gen. 8:11). It is mentioned "among the most notable trees of Palestine, where it was" cultivated long befo ... Read more about Olivetree...

Olves Mount of

"So called from the olive trees with which its sides are clothed," is a mountain ridge on the east of Jerusalem (1 Kings 11:7; "Ezek. 11:23; Zech. 14:4), from which it is separated by the" valley of ... Read more about Olves Mount of...

Olympas

A Roman Christian whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16:15). ... Read more about Olympas...

Omar

"Eloquent, the son of Eliphaz, who was Esau's eldest son (Gen." 36:11-15). ... Read more about Omar...

Omega

"(Rev. 1:8), the last letter in the Greek alphabet. (See [452]A.)" ... Read more about Omega...

Omer

"A handful, one-tenth of an ephah=half a gallon dry measure (Ex." "16:22, 32, 33, 36)="tenth deal." ... Read more about Omer...

Omri

Servant of Jehovah. When Elah was murdered by Zimri at Tirzah (1 "Kings 16:15-27), Omri, his captain, was made king (B.C. 931)." "For four years there was continued opposition to his reign," "Tibni, ... Read more about Omri...

"Light; the sun, (Gen. 41:45, 50), the great seat of sun-worship," "called also Bethshemesh (Jer. 43:13) and Aven (Ezek. 30:17)," "stood on the east bank of the Nile, a few miles north of" "Memphis, ... Read more about On...

Onan

"Strong, the second son of Judah (Gen. 38:4-10; comp. Deut. 25:5;" Matt. 22:24). He died before the going down of Jacob and his family into Egypt. ... Read more about Onan...

Onesimus

"Useful, a slave who, after robbing his master Philemon (q.v.) at" "Colosse, fled to Rome, where he was converted by the apostle" "Paul, who sent him back to his master with the epistle which" bears ... Read more about Onesimus...

Onesiphorus

"Bringing profit, an Ephesian Christian who showed great kindness" "to Paul at Rome. He served him in many things, and had oft" refreshed him. Paul expresses a warm interest in him and his household ... Read more about Onesiphorus...

Onion

"The Israelites in the wilderness longed for the "onions and" "garlick of Egypt" (Num. 11:5). This was the betsel of the" "Hebrews, the Allium cepe of botanists, of which it is said that" there are s ... Read more about Onion...

Ono

"A town of Benjamin, in the "plain of Ono" (1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra" "2:33); now Kefr `Ana, 5 miles north of Lydda, and about 30 miles" north-west of Jerusalem. Not succeeding in their attempts to "deter N ... Read more about Ono...

Onycha

"A nail; claw; hoof, (Heb. sheheleth; Ex. 30:34), a Latin word" "applied to the operculum, i.e., the claw or nail of the strombus" "or wing-shell, a univalve common in the Red Sea. The opercula of" " ... Read more about Onycha...

Onyx

"A hail; claw; hoof, (Heb. shoham), a precious stone adorning the" breast-plate of the high priest and the shoulders of the ephod "(Ex. 28:9-12, 20; 35:27; Job 28:16; Ezek. 28:13). It was found" in t ... Read more about Onyx...

Open place

"Gen. 38:14, 21, mar. Enaim; the same probably as Enam (Josh." "15:34), a city in the lowland or Shephelah." ... Read more about Open place...

Ophel

"Hill; mound, the long, narrow, rounded promontory on the" "southern slope of the temple hill, between the Tyropoeon and the" "Kedron valley (2 Chr. 27:3; 33:14; Neh. 3:26, 27). It was" "surrounded b ... Read more about Ophel...

Ophir

(1.) One of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 10:29). "(2.) Some region famous for its gold (1 Kings 9:28; 10:11; 22:48; Job 22:24; 28:16; Isa. 13:12). In the LXX. this word is "rendered "Sophir," and "Sofir" ... Read more about Ophir...

Ophni

"Mouldy, a city of Benjamin (Josh. 18:24)." ... Read more about Ophni...

Ophrah

A fawn. 1 Chr. 4:14. (1.) A city of Benjamin (Josh. 18:23); probably identical with Ephron (2 Chr. 13:19) and Ephraim (John 11:54). "(2.) "Of the Abi-ezrites." A city of Manasseh, 6 miles "south-west ... Read more about Ophrah...

Oracle

"In the Old Testament used in every case, except 2 Sam. 16:23, to" "denote the most holy place in the temple (1 Kings 6:5, 19-23;" 8:6). In 2 Sam. 16:23 it means the Word of God. A man inquired at th ... Read more about Oracle...

Oreb

"Raven, a prince of Midian, who, being defeated by Gideon and put" "to straits, was slain along with Zeeb (Judg. 7:20-25). Many of" the Midianites perished along with him (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 10:26). ... Read more about Oreb...

Oreb The rock of

The place where Gideon slew Oreb after the defeat of the Midianites (Judg. 7:25; Isa. 10:26). It was probably the place "now called Orbo, on the east of Jordan, near Bethshean." ... Read more about Oreb The rock of...

Oren

"Ash or pine, the son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25)." ... Read more about Oren...

Organ

"Some kind of wind instrument, probably a kind of Pan's pipes" "(Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; Ps. 150:4), which consisted of seven or" eight reeds of unequal length. ... Read more about Organ...

Orion

"Heb. Kesil; i.e., "the fool", the name of a constellation (Job" 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8) consisting of about eighty stars. The "Vulgate renders thus, but the LXX. renders by Hesperus, i.e.," "the eveni ... Read more about Orion...

Ornan

1 Chr. 21:15. (See [453]ARAUNAH.) ... Read more about Ornan...

Orpah

"Forelock or fawn, a Moabitess, the wife of Chilion (Ruth 1:4;" "4:10). On the death of her husband she accompanied Naomi, her" "mother-in-law, part of the way to Bethlehem, and then returned" to Moa ... Read more about Orpah...

Orphans

"(Lam. 5:3), i.e., desolate and without protectors. The word" occurs only here. In John 14:18 the word there rendered "comfortless (R.V., "desolate;" marg., "orphans") properly" "means "orphans." The ... Read more about Orphans...

Osprey

"Heb. `ozniyyah, an unclean bird according to the Mosaic law" (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12); the fish-eating eagle (Pandion haliaetus); one of the lesser eagles. But the Hebrew word may be taken to denot ... Read more about Osprey...

Ossifrage

"Heb. peres = to "break" or "crush", the lammer-geier, or bearded" "vulture, the largest of the whole vulture tribe. It was an" unclean bird (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12). It is not a gregarious "bird, a ... Read more about Ossifrage...

Ostrich

"(Lam. 4:3), the rendering of Hebrew pl. enim; so called from its" greediness and gluttony. The allusion here is to the habit of "the ostrich with reference to its eggs, which is thus described:" The ... Read more about Ostrich...

Othni

"A lion of Jehovah, a son of Shemaiah, and one of the temple" "porters in the time of David (1 Chr. 26:7). He was a "mighty man" "of valour." ... Read more about Othni...

Othniel

"Lion of God, the first of the judges. His wife Achsah was the" "daughter of Caleb (Josh. 15:16, 17; Judg. 1:13). He gained her" hand as a reward for his bravery in leading a successful expedition ag ... Read more about Othniel...

Ouches

An Old English word denoting cavities or sockets in which gems were set (Ex. 28:11). ... Read more about Ouches...

Oven

"Heb. tannur, (Hos. 7:4). In towns there appear to have been" public ovens. There was a street in Jerusalem (Jer. 37:21) "called "bakers' street" (the only case in which the name of a" "street in Jer ... Read more about Oven...

Owl

"(1.) Heb. bath-haya'anah, "daughter of greediness" or of" shouting. In the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15); also mentioned in Job 30:29; Isa. 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 50:39; Micah 1 ... Read more about Owl...

"Heb. bakar, "cattle;" "neat cattle", (Gen. 12:16; 34:28; Job" "1:3, 14; 42:12, etc.); not to be muzzled when treading the corn" (Deut. 25:4). Referred to by our Lord in his reproof to the Pharisees ... Read more about Ox...

Ox goad

"Mentioned only in Judg. 3:31, the weapon with which Shamgar" "(q.v.) slew six hundred Philistines. "The ploughman still" "carries his goad, a weapon apparently more fitted for the hand" of the soldi ... Read more about Ox goad...

Ozem

Strong. (1.) One of David's brothers; the sixth son of Jesse (1 Chr. 2:15). "(2.) A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25). ... Read more about Ozem...

Ozias

"Son of Joram (Matt. 1:8); called also Uzziah (2 Kings 15:32," 34). ... Read more about Ozias...

Ozni

"Hearing, one of the sons of Gad; also called Ezbon (Gen. 46:16;" Num. 26:16). ... Read more about Ozni...

"P"

Paarai

"Opening of the Lord, "the Arbite," one of David's heroes (2 Sam. "23:35); called also Naarai, 1 Chr. 11:37." ... Read more about Paarai...

Padan

"A plain, occurring only in Gen. 48:7, where it designates" Padan-aram. ... Read more about Padan...

Padanaram

"The plain of Aram, or the plain of the highlands, (Gen. 25:20;" "28:2, 5-7; 31:18, etc.), commonly regarded as the district of" Mesopotamia (q.v.) lying around Haran. ... Read more about Padanaram...

Pagiel

"God allots, a prince of the tribe of Asher (Num. 1:13), in the" wilderness. ... Read more about Pagiel...

Pahathmoab

"Governor of Moab, a person whose descendants returned from the" Captivity and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem (Ezra 2:6; 8:4; 10:30). ... Read more about Pahathmoab...

Paint

"Jezebel "painted her face" (2 Kings 9:30); and the practice of" painting the face and the eyes seems to have been common (Jer. 4:30; Ezek. 23:40). An allusion to this practice is found in the name o ... Read more about Paint...

Palace

"Used now only of royal dwellings, although originally meaning" "simply (as the Latin word palatium, from which it is derived," shows) a building surrounded by a fence or a paling. In the "Authorized ... Read more about Palace...

Palestine

Originally denoted only the sea-coast of the land of Canaan "inhabited by the Philistines (Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31; Joel" "3:4), and in this sense exclusively the Hebrew name Pelesheth" "(rendered ... Read more about Palestine...

Pallu

"Separated, the second son of Reuben (1 Chr. 5:3); called Phallu," Gen. 46:9. He was the father of the Phalluites (Ex. 6:14; Num. "26:5, 8)." ... Read more about Pallu...

Palm tree

"(Heb. tamar), the date-palm characteristic of Palestine. It is" "described as "flourishing" (Ps. 92:12), tall (Cant. 7:7)," upright (Jer. 10:5). Its branches are a symbol of victory "(Rev. 7:9). "Ri ... Read more about Palm tree...

Palm trees The city of

"The name given to Jericho (q.v.), Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16; 3:13." ... Read more about Palm trees The city of...

Palmerworm

(Heb. gazam). The English word may denote either a caterpillar "(as rendered by the LXX.), which wanders like a palmer or" "pilgrim, or which travels like pilgrims in bands (Joel 1:4;" "2:25), the wi ... Read more about Palmerworm...

Palsy

"A shorter form of "paralysis." Many persons thus afflicted were" cured by our Lord (Matt. 4:24; 8:5-13; 9:2-7; Mark 2:3-11; Luke "7:2-10; John 5:5-7) and the apostles (Acts 8:7; 9:33, 34)." ... Read more about Palsy...

Palti

"Deliverance from the Lord, one of the spies representing the" tribe of Benjamin (Num. 13:9). ... Read more about Palti...

Paltiel

"Deliverance of God, the prince of Issachar who assisted "to" "divide the land by inheritance" (Num. 34:26)." ... Read more about Paltiel...

Paltite

The designation of one of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:26); called also the Pelonite (1 Chr. 11:27). ... Read more about Paltite...

Pamphylia

"Paul and his company, loosing from Paphos, sailed north-west and" "came to Perga, the capital of Pamphylia (Acts 13:13, 14), a" province about the middle of the southern sea-board of Asia Minor. It ... Read more about Pamphylia...

Pan

A vessel of metal or earthenware used in culinary operations; a cooking-pan or frying-pan frequently referred to in the Old "Testament (Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 11:8; 1 Sam. 2:14, etc.)." "The "ash-pans" ... Read more about Pan...

Pannag

"(Ezek. 27:17; marg. R.V., "perhaps a kind of confection") the" Jews explain as the name of a kind of sweet pastry. Others take "it as the name of some place, identifying it with Pingi, on the" "road ... Read more about Pannag...

Paper

"The expression in the Authorized Version (Isa. 19:7), "the paper" "reeds by the brooks," is in the Revised Version more correctly" the meadows by the Nile. The words undoubtedly refer to a grassy pl ... Read more about Paper...

Paphos

"The capital of the island of Cyprus, and therefore the residence" of the Roman governor. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary tour (Acts 13:6). It is new Paphos which "is he ... Read more about Paphos...

Parable

"(Gr. parabole), a placing beside; a comparison; equivalent to" "the Heb. mashal, a similitude. In the Old Testament this is used" "to denote (1) a proverb (1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20), (2)" "a ... Read more about Parable...

Paradise

"A Persian word (pardes), properly meaning a "pleasure-ground" or" "park or "king's garden." (See [458]EDEN.) It came in course of" time to be used as a name for the world of happiness and rest "here ... Read more about Paradise...

Parah

"The heifer, a town in Benjamin (Josh. 18:23), supposed to be" "identical with the ruins called Far'ah, about 6 miles north-east" "of Jerusalem, in the Wady Far'ah, which is a branch of the Wady" Kel ... Read more about Parah...

Paran

"Abounding in foliage, or abounding in caverns, (Gen. 21:21), a" desert tract forming the north-eastern division of the peninsula "of Sinai, lying between the `Arabah on the east and the" wilderness ... Read more about Paran...

Paran Mount

Probably the hilly region or upland wilderness on the north of the desert of Paran forming the southern boundary of the Promised Land (Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3). ... Read more about Paran Mount...

Parbar

"(1 Chr. 26:18), a place apparently connected with the temple," "probably a "suburb" (q.v.), as the word is rendered in 2 Kings" 23:11; a space between the temple wall and the wall of the court; an o ... Read more about Parbar...

Parched ground

"(Isa. 35:7), Heb. sharab, a "mirage", a phenomenon caused by the" refraction of the rays of the sun on the glowing sands of the "desert, causing them suddenly to assume the appearance of a" beautifu ... Read more about Parched ground...

Parchment

"A skin prepared for writing on; so called from Pergamos (q.v.)," where this was first done (2 Tim. 4:13). ... Read more about Parchment...

Pardon

"The forgiveness of sins granted freely (Isa. 43:25), readily" "(Neh. 9:17; Ps. 86:5), abundantly (Isa. 55:7; Rom. 5:20). Pardon" "is an act of a sovereign, in pure sovereignty, granting simply a" "r ... Read more about Pardon...

Parlour

"(from the Fr. parler, "to speak") denotes an "audience chamber," but that is not the import of the Hebrew word so rendered. It "corresponds to what the Turks call a kiosk, as in Judg. 3:20" "(the "s ... Read more about Parlour...

Parmashta

"Strong-fisted, a son of Haman, slain in Shushan (Esther 9:9)." ... Read more about Parmashta...

Parmenas

"Constant, one of the seven "deacons" (Acts 6:5)." ... Read more about Parmenas...

Parshandatha

"An interpreter of the law, the eldest of Haman's sons, slain in" Shushan (Esther 9:7). ... Read more about Parshandatha...

Parthians

Were present in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Parthia lay "on the east of Media and south of Hyrcania, which separated it" from the Caspian Sea. It corresponded with the western half of "the mod ... Read more about Parthians...

Partridge

"(Heb. kore, i.e., "caller"). This bird, unlike our own" "partridge, is distinguished by "its ringing call-note, which in" early morning echoes from cliff to cliff amidst the barrenness of the wilder ... Read more about Partridge...

Paruah

"Flourishing, the father of Jehoshaphat, appointed to provide" monthly supplies for Solomon from the tribe of Issachar (1 Kings 4:17). ... Read more about Paruah...

Parvaim

The name of a country from which Solomon obtained gold for the "temple (2 Chr. 3:6). Some have identified it with Ophir, but it" is uncertain whether it is even the name of a place. It may "simply, a ... Read more about Parvaim...

Pasach

"Clearing, one of the sons of Japhlet, of the tribe of Asher (1" Chr. 7:33). ... Read more about Pasach...

Pasdammim

"The border of blood = Ephes-dammim (q.v.), between Shochoh and" Azekah (1 Sam. 17:1; 1 Chr. 11:13). ... Read more about Pasdammim...

Pashur

"Release. (1.) The son of Immer (probably the same as Amariah," "Neh. 10:3; 12:2), the head of one of the priestly courses, was" "chief governor [Heb. paqid nagid, meaning deputy governor"] of" "the ... Read more about Pashur...

Passage

"Denotes in Josh. 22:11, as is generally understood, the place" "where the children of Israel passed over Jordan. The words "the" "passage of" are, however, more correctly rendered "by the side" "of, ... Read more about Passage...

Passion

"Only once found, in Acts 1:3, meaning suffering, referring to" the sufferings of our Lord. ... Read more about Passion...

Passover

The name given to the chief of the three great historical annual festivals of the Jews. It was kept in remembrance of the Lord's passing over the houses of the Israelites (Ex. 12:13) when the first b ... Read more about Passover...

Patara

A city on the south-west coast of Lycia at which Paul landed on "his return from his third missionary journey (Acts 21:1, 2)." "Here he found a larger vessel, which was about to sail across" the open ... Read more about Patara...

Pathros

The name generally given to Upper Egypt (the Thebaid of the "Greeks), as distinguished from Matsor, or Lower Egypt (Isa." "11:11; Jer. 44:1, 15; Ezek. 30:14), the two forming Mizraim." "After the des ... Read more about Pathros...

Patmos

"A small rocky and barren island, one of the group called the" "Sporades, in the AEgean Sea. It is mentioned in Scripture only" "in Rev. 1:9. It was on this island, to which John was banished" "by th ... Read more about Patmos...

Patriarch

A name employed in the New Testament with reference to Abraham "(Heb. 7:4), the sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8, 9), and to David" (2:29). This name is generally applied to the progenitors of "families or "h ... Read more about Patriarch...

Patrobas

A Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16:14). ... Read more about Patrobas...

Pau

"(Gen. 36:39) or Pai (1 Chr. 1:50), bleating, an Edomitish city" ruled over by Hadar. ... Read more about Pau...

Paul

#NAME? "circumcision-name was Saul, and probably the name Paul was also" "given to him in infancy "for use in the Gentile world," as" "Saul would be his Hebrew home-name. He was a native of Tarsus," ... Read more about Paul...

Pavement

It was the custom of the Roman governors to erect their "tribunals in open places, as the market-place, the circus, or" even the highway. Pilate caused his seat of judgment to be set "down in a place ... Read more about Pavement...

Pavilion

"A tent or tabernacle (2 Sam. 22:12; 1 Kings 20:12-16), or" enclosure (Ps. 18:11; 27:5). In Jer. 43:10 it probably denotes the canopy suspended over the judgement-seat of the king. ... Read more about Pavilion...

Peace offerings

"(Heb. shelamim), detailed regulations regarding given in Lev. 3;" "7:11-21, 29-34. They were of three kinds, (1) eucharistic or" "thanksgiving offerings, expressive of gratitude for blessings" "rece ... Read more about Peace offerings...

Peacock

"(Heb. tuk, apparently borrowed from the Tamil tokei). This bird" is indigenous to India. It was brought to Solomon by his ships "from Tarshish (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21), which in this case" "was ... Read more about Peacock...

Pearl

"(Heb. gabish, Job 28:18; Gr. margarites, Matt. 7:6; 13:46; Rev." 21:21). The pearl oyster is found in the Persian Gulf and the "Red Sea. Its shell is the "mother of pearl," which is of great" value ... Read more about Pearl...

Peculiar

"As used in the phrase "peculiar people" in 1 Pet. 2:9, is" "derived from the Lat. peculium, and denotes, as rendered in the" "Revised Version ("a people for God's own possession"), a special" "posse ... Read more about Peculiar...

Pedahel

"Redeemed of God, the son of Ammihud, a prince of Naphtali (Num." 34:28). ... Read more about Pedahel...

Pedahzur

"Rock of redemption, the father of Gamaliel and prince of" Manasseh at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:10; 2:20). ... Read more about Pedahzur...

Pedaiah

"Redemption of the Lord. (1.) The father of Zebudah, who was the" wife of Josiah and mother of king Jehoiakim (2 Kings 23:36). "(2.) The father of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:17-19). "(3.). The father of Jo ... Read more about Pedaiah...

Pekah

"Open-eyed, the son of Remaliah a captain in the army of" "Pekahiah, king of Israel, whom he slew, with the aid of a band" "of Gileadites, and succeeded (B.C. 758) on the throne (2 Kings" 15:25). Sev ... Read more about Pekah...

Pekahiah

"The Lord opened his eyes, the son and successor of Menahem on" the throne of Israel. He was murdered in the royal palace of "Samaria by Pekah, one of the captains of his army (2 Kings" "15:23-26), a ... Read more about Pekahiah...

Pekod

Probably a place in Babylonia (Jer. 50:21; Ezek. 23:23). It is "the opinion, however, of some that this word signifies" "visitation, "punishment," and allegorically "designates" "Babylon as the city ... Read more about Pekod...

Pelaiah

Distinguished of the Lord. (1.) One of David's posterity (1 Chr. 3:24). "(2.) A Levite who expounded the law (Neh. 8:7). ... Read more about Pelaiah...

Pelatiah

Deliverance of the Lord. (1.) A son of Hananiah and grandson of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:21). "(2.) A captain of "the sons of Simeon" (4:42). "(3.) Neh. 10:22. "(4.) One of the twenty-five princes of the ... Read more about Pelatiah...

Peleg

"Division, one of the sons of Eber; so called because "in his" "days was the earth divided" (Gen. 10:25). Possibly he may have" lived at the time of the dispersion from Babel. But more probably the r ... Read more about Peleg...

Pelet

Deliverance. (1.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:47). "(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3). ... Read more about Pelet...

Peleth

Swiftness. (1.) A Reubenite whose son was one of the conspirators against Moses and Aaron (Num. 16:1). "(2.) One of the sons of Jonathan (1 Chr. 2:33). ... Read more about Peleth...

Pelethites

"Mentioned always along with the Cherethites, and only in the" "time of David. The word probably means "runners" or "couriers," "and may denote that while forming part of David's bodyguard," they wer ... Read more about Pelethites...

Pelicans

Are frequently met with at the waters of Merom and the Sea of Galilee. The pelican is ranked among unclean birds (Lev. 11:18; "Deut. 14:17). It is of an enormous size, being about 6 feet" "long, with ... Read more about Pelicans...

Penny

"(Gr. denarion), a silver coin of the value of about 7 1/2d. or" 8d. of our present money. It is thus rendered in the New "Testament, and is more frequently mentioned than any other coin" "(Matt. 18: ... Read more about Penny...

Pentateuch

"The five-fold volume, consisting of the first five books of the" "Old Testament. This word does not occur in Scripture, nor is it" certainly known when the roll was thus divided into five "portions ... Read more about Pentateuch...

Pentecost

"I.e., "fiftieth", found only in the New Testament (Acts 2:1;" 20:16; 1 Cor. 16:8). The festival so named is first spoken of in "Ex. 23:16 as "the feast of harvest," and again in Ex. 34:22 as" the da ... Read more about Pentecost...

Penuel

"Face of God, a place not far from Succoth, on the east of the" Jordan and north of the river Jabbok. It is also called "Peniel. Here Jacob wrestled (Gen. 32:24-32) "with a man" ("the" "angel", Hos. ... Read more about Penuel...

Peor

Opening. (1.) A mountain peak (Num. 23:28) to which Balak led Balaam as a last effort to induce him to pronounce a curse upon Israel. When he looked on the tribes encamped in the acacia "groves below ... Read more about Peor...

Perazim Mount

"Mount of breaches, only in Isa. 28:21. It is the same as" "BAAL-PERAZIM (q.v.), where David gained a victory over the" Philistines (2 Sam. 5:20). ... Read more about Perazim Mount...

Peres

"Divided, one of the mysterious words "written over against the" "candlestick upon the plaster of the wall" of king Belshazzar's" palace (Dan. 5:28). (See [466]MENE.) ... Read more about Peres...

Perez

"=Pharez, (q.v.), breach, the son of Judah (Neh. 11:4). "The" "chief of all the captains of the host for the first month" in" the reign of David was taken from his family (1 Chr. 27:3). Four "hundred ... Read more about Perez...

Perezuzzah

"The breach of Uzzah, a place where God "burst forth upon Uzzah," "so that he died," when he rashly "took hold" of the ark (2 Sam." 6:6-8). It was not far from Kirjath-jearim (q.v.). ... Read more about Perezuzzah...

Perfection

See [467]SANCTIFICATION. ... Read more about Perfection...

Perfumes

"Were used in religious worship, and for personal and domestic" enjoyment (Ex. 30:35-37; Prov. 7:17; Cant. 3:6; Isa. 57:9); and "also in embalming the dead, and in other funeral ceremonies" (Mark 14: ... Read more about Perfumes...

Perga

"The capital of Pamphylia, on the coast of Asia Minor. Paul and" his companions landed at this place from Cyprus on their first "missionary journey (Acts 13:13, 14), and here Mark forsook the" party ... Read more about Perga...

Pergamos

"The chief city of Mysia, in Asia Minor. One of the "seven" "churches" was planted here (Rev. 1:11; 2:17). It was noted for" "its wickedness, insomuch that our Lord says "Satan's seat" was" there. Th ... Read more about Pergamos...

Perida

"Kernel, Neh. 7:57. (See [468]PERUDA.)" ... Read more about Perida...

Perizzites

"Villagers; dwellers in the open country, the Canaanitish nation" inhabiting the fertile regions south and south-west of Carmel. "They were the graziers, farmers, and peasants of the time." They were ... Read more about Perizzites...

Persecution

The first great persecution for religious opinion of which we have any record was that which broke out against the worshippers "of God among the Jews in the days of Ahab, when that king, at" "the ins ... Read more about Persecution...

Perseverance of the saints

Their certain continuance in a state of grace. Once justified "and regenerated, the believer can neither totally nor finally" "fall away from grace, but will certainly persevere therein and" attain e ... Read more about Perseverance of the saints...

Persia

"An ancient empire, extending from the Indus to Thrace, and from" the Caspian Sea to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The "Persians were originally a Medic tribe which settled in Persia," "on the ea ... Read more about Persia...

Persis

A female Christian at Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16:12). She "is spoken of as "beloved," and as having "laboured much in the" "Lord." ... Read more about Persis...

Peruda

One whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:55); called also Perida (Neh. 7:57). ... Read more about Peruda...

Peter

"Originally called Simon (=Simeon ,i.e., "hearing"), a very" common Jewish name in the New Testament. He was the son of Jona (Matt. 16:17). His mother is nowhere named in Scripture. He had "a younger ... Read more about Peter...

Peter First Epistle of

"This epistle is addressed to "the strangers scattered abroad"," "i.e., to the Jews of the Dispersion (the Diaspora)." "Its object is to confirm its readers in the doctrines they had "been already ta ... Read more about Peter First Epistle of...

Peter Second Epistle of

The question of the authenticity of this epistle has been much "discussed, but the weight of evidence is wholly in favour of its" claim to be the production of the apostle whose name it bears. It app ... Read more about Peter Second Epistle of...

Pethahiah

Loosed of the Lord. (1.) The chief of one of the priestly courses (the nineteenth) in the time of David (1 Chr. 24:16). (2.) A Levite (Ezra 10:23). (3.) Neh. 9:5. (4.) A descendant of Judah who had s ... Read more about Pethahiah...

Pethor

"Interpretation of dreams, identified with Pitru, on the west" "bank of the Euphrates, a few miles south of the Hittite capital" "of Carchemish (Num. 22:5, "which is by the river of the land of" "the ... Read more about Pethor...

Pethuel

"Vision of God, the father of Joel the prophet (Joel 1:1)." ... Read more about Pethuel...

Petra

"Rock, Isa. 16:1, marg. (See [472]SELA.)" ... Read more about Petra...

Peulthai

"Wages of the Lord, one of the sons of Obed-edom, a Levite porter" (1 Chr. 26:5). ... Read more about Peulthai...

Phalec

"(Luke 3:35)=Peleg (q.v.), Gen. 11:16." ... Read more about Phalec...

Phallu

"Separated, the second son of Reuben (Gen. 46:9)." ... Read more about Phallu...

Phalti

"Deliverance of the Lord, the son of Laish of Gallim (1 Sam." "25:44)= Phaltiel (2 Sam. 3:15). Michal, David's wife, was given" to him. ... Read more about Phalti...

Phanuel

"Face of God, father of the prophetess Anna (q.v.), Luke 2:36." ... Read more about Phanuel...

Pharaoh

The official title borne by the Egyptian kings down to the time when that country was conquered by the Greeks. (See [473]EGYPT.) "The name is a compound, as some think, of the words Ra, the" "sun or ... Read more about Pharaoh...

Pharaohs daughters

Three princesses are thus mentioned in Scripture: (1.) The "princess who adopted the infant Moses (q.v.), Ex. 2:10. She is" twice mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 7:21: Heb. 11:24). It would seem ... Read more about Pharaohs daughters...

Pharez

"Breach, the elder of the twin sons of Judah (Gen. 38:29). From" "him the royal line of David sprang (Ruth 4:18-22). "The chief of" "all the captains of the host" was of the children of Perez (1" Chr ... Read more about Pharez...

Pharisees

"Separatists (Heb. persahin, from parash, "to separate"). They" "were probably the successors of the Assideans (i.e., the" "pious), a party that originated in the time of Antiochus" Epiphanes in revo ... Read more about Pharisees...

Pharpar

"Swift, one of the rivers of Damascus (2 Kings 5:12). It has been" "identified with the `Awaj, "a small lively river." The whole of" "the district watered by the `Awaj is called the Wady el-`Ajam," " ... Read more about Pharpar...

Phebe

"A "deaconess of the church at Cenchrea," the port of Corinth." She was probably the bearer of Paul's epistle to the Romans. "Paul commended her to the Christians at Rome; "for she hath" "been," says ... Read more about Phebe...

Phenice

"Properly Phoenix a palm-tree (as in the R.V.), a town with a" "harbour on the southern side of Crete (Acts 27:12), west of the" Fair Havens. It is now called Lutro. ... Read more about Phenice...

Phenicia

"(Acts 21:2) = Phenice (11:19; 15:3; R.V., Phoenicia), Gr." "phoinix, "a palm", the land of palm-trees; a strip of land of an" average breadth of about 20 miles along the shores of the "Mediterranean ... Read more about Phenicia...

Phicol

"Great, the chief captain of the army of Abimelech, the" Philistine king of Gerar. He entered into an alliance with "Abraham with reference to a certain well which, from this" "circumstance, was call ... Read more about Phicol...

Philadelphia

"Brotherly love, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, about 25 miles" "south-east of Sardis. It was the seat of one of the "seven" "churches" (Rev. 3:7-12). It came into the possession of the" Turks in A.D ... Read more about Philadelphia...

Philemon

"An inhabitant of Colosse, and apparently a person of some note" among the citizens (Col. 4:9; Philemon 1:2). He was brought to a knowledge of the gospel through the instrumentality of Paul "(19), an ... Read more about Philemon...

Philemon Epistle to

Was written from Rome at the same time as the epistles to the "Colossians and Ephesians, and was sent also by Onesimus. It was" addressed to Philemon and the members of his family. "It was written fo ... Read more about Philemon Epistle to...

Philetus

"Amiable, with Hymenaeus, at Ephesus, said that the "resurrection" "was past already" (2 Tim. 2:17, 18). This was a Gnostic heresy" held by the Nicolaitanes. (See [480]ALEXANDER [4].) ... Read more about Philetus...

Philip

Lover of horses. (1.) One of the twelve apostles; a native of "Bethsaida, "the city of Andrew and Peter" (John 1:44). He" readily responded to the call of Jesus when first addressed to "him (43), and ... Read more about Philip...

Philippi

"(1.) Formerly Crenides, "the fountain," the capital of the" "province of Macedonia. It stood near the head of the Sea, about" "8 miles north-west of Kavalla. It is now a ruined village," called Phil ... Read more about Philippi...

Philippians Epistle to

"Was written by Paul during the two years when he was "in bonds" "in Rome (Phil. 1:7-13), probably early in the year A.D. 62 or in" the end of 61. "The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messen ... Read more about Philippians Epistle to...

Philistia

"=Palestine (q.v.), "the land of the Philistines" (Ps. 60:8;" "87:4; 108:9). The word is supposed to mean "the land of" "wanderers" or "of strangers." ... Read more about Philistia...

Philistines

"(Gen. 10:14, R.V.; but in A.V., "Philistim"), a tribe allied to" the Phoenicians. They were a branch of the primitive race which spread over the whole district of the Lebanon and the valley of "the ... Read more about Philistines...

Phinehas

"Mouth of brass, or from old Egypt, the negro. (1.) Son of" "Eleazar, the high priest (Ex. 6:25). While yet a youth he" distinguished himself at Shittim by his zeal against the immorality into which ... Read more about Phinehas...

Phlegon

"Burning, a Roman Christian to whom Paul sent salutations (Rom." 16:14). ... Read more about Phlegon...

Phoenicia

(Acts 21:2). (See [485]PHENICIA.) ... Read more about Phoenicia...

Phrygia

"Dry, an irregular and ill-defined district in Asia Minor. It was" "divided into two parts, the Greater Phrygia on the south, and" the Lesser Phrygia on the west. It is the Greater Phrygia that is sp ... Read more about Phrygia...

Phut

"Phut is placed between Egypt and Canaan in Gen. 10:6, and" elsewhere we find the people of Phut described as mercenaries in the armies of Egypt and Tyre (Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 30:5; 27:10). In a fragment ... Read more about Phut...

Phygellus

"Fugitive, a Christian of Asia, who "turned away" from Paul" during his second imprisonment at Rome (2 Tim. 1:15). Nothing more is known of him. ... Read more about Phygellus...

Phylacteries

"(Gr. phulakteria; i.e., "defences" or "protections"), called by" "modern Jews tephillin (i.e., "prayers") are mentioned only in" Matt. 23:5. They consisted of strips of parchment on which were inscr ... Read more about Phylacteries...

Physician

"Asa, afflicted with some bodily malady, "sought not to the Lord" "but to the physicians" (2 Chr. 16:12). The "physicians" were" "those who "practised heathen arts of magic, disavowing" "recognized m ... Read more about Physician...

Pibeseth

"(Ezek. 30:17), supposed to mean. "a cat," or a deity in the form" "of a cat, worshipped by the Egyptians. It was called by the" "Greeks Bubastis. The hieroglyphic name is "Pe-bast", i.e., the" "hous ... Read more about Pibeseth...

Pieces

"(1) of silver. In Ps. 68:30 denotes "fragments," and not" "properly money. In 1 Sam. 2:36 (Heb. agorah), properly a "small" "sum" as wages, weighed rather than coined. Josh. 24:32 (Heb." "kesitah, q ... Read more about Pieces...

Piety

"Lat. pietas, properly honour and respect toward parents (1 Tim." "5:4). In Acts 17:23 the Greek verb is rendered "ye worship," as" applicable to God. ... Read more about Piety...

Pigeon

"Pigeons are mentioned as among the offerings which, by divine" "appointment, Abram presented unto the Lord (Gen. 15:9). They" were afterwards enumerated among the sin-offerings (Lev. 1:14; "12:6), a ... Read more about Pigeon...

Pihahiroth

"Place where the reeds grow (LXX. and Copt. read "farmstead")," the name of a place in Egypt where the children of Israel "encamped (Ex. 14:2, 9), how long is uncertain. Some have" "identified it wit ... Read more about Pihahiroth...

Pilate Pontius

"Probably connected with the Roman family of the Pontii, and" "called "Pilate" from the Latin pileatus, i.e., "wearing the" "pileus", which was the "cap or badge of a manumitted slave," as" "indicati ... Read more about Pilate Pontius...

Pillar

"Used to support a building (Judg. 16:26, 29); as a trophy or" "memorial (Gen. 28:18; 35:20; Ex. 24:4; 1 Sam. 15:12, A.V.," "place, more correctly "monument," or "trophy of victory," as" "in 2 Sam. 1 ... Read more about Pillar...

Pine tree

"Heb. tidhar, mentioned along with the fir-tree in Isa. 41:19;" 60:13. This is probably the cypress; or it may be the "stone-pine, which is common on the northern slopes of Lebanon." "Some suppose th ... Read more about Pine tree...

Pinnacle

"A little wing, (Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9). On the southern side of" the temple court was a range of porches or cloisters forming three arcades. At the south-eastern corner the roof of this cloister was s ... Read more about Pinnacle...

Pipe

(1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29). The Hebrew word "halil, so rendered, means "bored through," and is the name given" "to various kinds of wind instruments, as the fife, flute," "Pan-pipe ... Read more about Pipe...

Piram

"Like a wild ass, a king of Jarmuth, a royal city of the" "Canaanites, who was conquered and put to death by Joshua (10:3," "23, 26)." ... Read more about Piram...

Pirathon

"Prince, or summit, a place "in the land of Ephraim" (Judg." "12:15), now Fer'on, some 10 miles south-west of Shechem. This" was the home of Abdon the judge. ... Read more about Pirathon...

Pirathonite

"(1.) Abdon, the son of Hillel, so called, Judg. 12:13, 15." "(2.) Benaiah the Ephraimite (2 Sam. 23:30), one of David's thirty heroes. ... Read more about Pirathonite...

Pisgah

"A part, a mountain summit in the land of Moab, in the territory" "of Reuben, where Balak offered up sacrifices (Num. 21:20;" "23:14), and from which Moses viewed the promised land (Deut." 3:27). It ... Read more about Pisgah...

Pisidia

"A district in Asia Minor, to the north of Pamphylia. The Taurus" "range of mountains extends through it. Antioch, one of its chief" "cities, was twice visited by Paul (Acts 13:14; 14:21-24)." ... Read more about Pisidia...

Pison

"Babylonian, the current, broad-flowing, one of the "four heads" into which the river which watered the garden of Eden was "divided (Gen. 2:11). Some identify it with the modern Phasis," "others with ... Read more about Pison...

Pit

"A hole in the ground (Ex. 21:33, 34), a cistern for water (Gen." "37:24; Jer. 14:3), a vault (41:9), a grave (Ps. 30:3). It is" "used as a figure for mischief (Ps. 9:15), and is the name given" "to ... Read more about Pit...

Pitch

"(Gen. 6:14), asphalt or bitumen in its soft state, called" "slime (Gen. 11:3; 14:10; Ex. 2:3), found in pits near the Dead" "Sea (q.v.). It was used for various purposes, as the coating of" the outs ... Read more about Pitch...

Pitcher

A vessel for containing liquids. In the East pitchers were usually carried on the head or shoulders (Gen. 24:15-20; Judg. "7:16, 19; Mark 14:13)." ... Read more about Pitcher...

Pithom

"Egyptian, Pa-Tum, "house of Tum," the sun-god, one of the" treasure cities built for Pharaoh Rameses II. by the Israelites (Ex. 1:11). It was probably the Patumos of the Greek historian Herodotus. I ... Read more about Pithom...

Plague

"A "stroke" of affliction, or disease. Sent as a divine" chastisement (Num. 11:33; 14:37; 16:46-49; 2 Sam. 24:21). "Painful afflictions or diseases, (Lev. 13:3, 5, 30; 1 Kings" "8:37), or severe cala ... Read more about Plague...

Plain

"(1.) Heb. `abel (Judg. 11:33), a "grassy plain" or "meadow." "Instead of "plains of the vineyards," as in the Authorized" "Version, the Revised Version has "Abel-cheramim" (q.v.), comp." Judg. 11:22 ... Read more about Plain...

Plain of Mamre

"(Gen. 13:18; 14:13; R.V., "oaks of Mamre;" marg., "terebinths")." (See [495]MAMRE; [496]TEIL-TREE.) ... Read more about Plain of Mamre...

Plane tree

"Heb. `armon (Gen. 30:37; Ezek. 31:8), rendered "chesnut" in the" "Authorized Version, but correctly "plane tree" in the Revised" "Version and the LXX. This tree is frequently found in Palestine," bo ... Read more about Plane tree...

Pledge

See [498]LOAN. ... Read more about Pledge...

Pleiades

"Heb. kimah, "a cluster" (Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8, A.V., "seven" "stars;" R.V., "Pleiades"), a name given to the cluster of stars" seen in the shoulder of the constellation Taurus. ... Read more about Pleiades...

Plough

"First referred to in Gen. 45:6, where the Authorized Version has" "earing, but the Revised Version "ploughing;" next in Ex. 34:21" "and Deut. 21:4. The plough was originally drawn by oxen, but" some ... Read more about Plough...

Poetry

"Has been well defined as "the measured language of emotion." Hebrew poetry deals almost exclusively with the great question "of man's relation to God. "Guilt, condemnation, punishment," "pardon, red ... Read more about Poetry...

Poison

"(1.) Heb. hemah, "heat," the poison of certain venomous reptiles" "(Deut. 32:24, 33; Job 6:4; Ps. 58:4), causing inflammation." "(2.) Heb. rosh, "a head," a poisonous plant (Deut. 29:18), "growing l ... Read more about Poison...

Pomegranate

"I.e., "grained apple" (pomum granatum), Heb. rimmon. Common in" Egypt (Num. 20:5) and Palestine (13:23; Deut. 8:8). The Romans "called it Punicum malum, i.e., Carthaginian apple, because they" recei ... Read more about Pomegranate...

Pommels

"(2 Chr. 4:12, 13), or bowls (1 Kings 7:41), were balls or" rounded knobs on the top of the chapiters (q.v.). ... Read more about Pommels...

Pontius Pilate

See [500]PILATE. ... Read more about Pontius Pilate...

Pontus

"A province of Asia Minor, stretching along the southern coast of" "the Euxine Sea, corresponding nearly to the modern province of" Trebizond. In the time of the apostles it was a Roman province. Str ... Read more about Pontus...

Pool

"A pond, or reservoir, for holding water (Heb. berekhah; modern" "Arabic, birket), an artificial cistern or tank. Mention is made" of the pool of Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:13); the pool of Hebron (4:12); the ... Read more about Pool...

Pools of Solomon

"The name given to three large open cisterns at Etam, at the head" "of the Wady Urtas, having an average length of 400 feet by 220" "in breadth, and 20 to 30 in depth. These pools derive their" "chie ... Read more about Pools of Solomon...

Poor

The Mosaic legislation regarding the poor is specially important. (1.) They had the right of gleaning the fields (Lev. "19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19, 21)." "(2.) In the sabbatical year they were to have the ... Read more about Poor...

Poplar

"Heb. libneh, "white", (Gen. 30:37; Hos. 4:13), in all" probability the storax tree (Styrax officinalis) or white "poplar, distinguished by its white blossoms and pale leaves. It" is common in the An ... Read more about Poplar...

Porch Solomons

"A colonnade on the east of the temple, so called from a" tradition that it was a relic of Solomon's temple left standing after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. (Comp. 1 "Kings 7:6.) ... Read more about Porch Solomons...

Porcius Festus

See [502]FESTUS. ... Read more about Porcius Festus...

Porter

A gate-keeper (2 Sam. 18:26; 2 Kings 7:10; 1 Chr. 9:21; 2 Chr. "8:14). Of the Levites, 4,000 were appointed as porters by David" "(1 Chr. 23:5), who were arranged according to their families" (26:1-1 ... Read more about Porter...

Post

"(1.) A runner, or courier, for the rapid transmission of" "letters, etc. (2 Chr. 30:6; Esther 3:13, 15; 8:10, 14; Job 9:25;" Jer. 51:31). Such messengers were used from very early times. Those emplo ... Read more about Post...

Potiphar

"Dedicated to Ra; i.e., to the sun-god, the Egyptian to whom the" "Ishmaelites sold Joseph (Gen. 39:1). He was "captain of the" "guard", i.e., chief, probably, of the state police, who, while" "they ... Read more about Potiphar...

Potipherah

"A priest of On, whose daughter Asenath became Joseph's wife" (Gen. 41:45). ... Read more about Potipherah...

Potsherd

"A "shred", i.e., anything severed, as a fragment of earthenware" (Job 2:8; Prov. 26:23; Isa. 45:9). ... Read more about Potsherd...

Pottage

"Heb. nazid, "boiled", a dish of boiled food, as of lentils (Gen." 25:29; 2 Kings 4:38). ... Read more about Pottage...

Potters field

The name given to the piece of ground which was afterwards bought with the money that had been given to Judas. It was "called the "field of blood" (Matt. 27:7-10). Tradition places it" in the valley ... Read more about Potters field...

Pottery

"The art of, was early practised among all nations. Various" materials seem to have been employed by the potter. Earthenware is mentioned in connection with the history of Melchizedek (Gen. "14:18), ... Read more about Pottery...

Pound

"(1.) A weight. Heb. maneh, equal to 100 shekels (1 Kings 10:17;" "Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:71, 72). Gr. litra, equal to about 12 oz." avoirdupois (John 12:3; 19:39). "(2.) A sum of money; the Gr. mna or mi ... Read more about Pound...

Praetorium

The Greek word (praitorion) thus rendered in Mark 15:16 is "rendered "common hall" (Matt. 27:27, marg., "governor's house")," "judgment hall, (John 18:28, 33, marg., "Pilate's house", 19:9;" "Acts 23 ... Read more about Praetorium...

Prayer

"Is converse with God; the intercourse of the soul with God, not" "in contemplation or meditation, but in direct address to him." "Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional or constant," "ejaculatory ... Read more about Prayer...

Predestination

This word is properly used only with reference to God's plan or "purpose of salvation. The Greek word rendered "predestinate" is" "found only in these six passages, Acts 4:28; Rom. 8:29, 30; 1" "Cor. ... Read more about Predestination...

Presidents

"Three presidents are mentioned, of whom Daniel was the first" "(Dan. 6:2-7). The name in the original is sarkhin, probably a" Persian word meaning perfects or ministers. ... Read more about Presidents...

Priest

"The Heb. kohen, Gr. hierus, Lat. sacerdos, always denote one who" offers sacrifices. "At first every man was his own priest, and presented his own sacrifices before God. Afterwards that office devol ... Read more about Priest...

Prince

The title generally applied to the chief men of the state. The princes of the provinces (1 Kings 20:14) were the governors or "lord-lieutenants of the provinces. So also the "princes" "mentioned in D ... Read more about Prince...

Priscilla

"The wife of Aquila (Acts 18:2), who is never mentioned without" her. Her name sometimes takes the precedence of his (Rom. 16:3; 2 Tim. 4:19). She took part with Aquila (q.v.) in insturcting Apollos ... Read more about Priscilla...

Prison

The first occasion on which we read of a prison is in the "history of Joseph in Egypt. Then Potiphar, "Joseph's master," "took him, and put him into the prison, a place where the king's" "prisoners w ... Read more about Prison...

Prophecy

"Or prediction, was one of the functions of the prophet. It has" "been defined as a "miracle of knowledge, a declaration or" "description or representation of something future, beyond the" "power of ... Read more about Prophecy...

Prophet

"(Heb. nabi, from a root meaning "to bubble forth, as from a" "fountain," hence "to utter", comp. Ps. 45:1). This Hebrew word" is the first and the most generally used for a prophet. In the "time of ... Read more about Prophet...

Propitiation

"That by which God is rendered propitious, i.e., by which it" becomes consistent with his character and government to pardon and bless the sinner. The propitiation does not procure his love or make h ... Read more about Propitiation...

Proportion of faith

(Rom. 12:6). Paul says here that each one was to exercise his "gift of prophecy, i.e., of teaching, "according to the" "proportion of faith." The meaning is, that the utterances of the" prophet were ... Read more about Proportion of faith...

Proselyte

"Is used in the LXX. for "stranger" (1 Chr. 22:2), i.e., a comer" "to Palestine; a sojourner in the land (Ex. 12:48; 20:10; 22:21)," and in the New Testament for a convert to Judaism. There were such ... Read more about Proselyte...

Proverb

A trite maxim; a similitude; a parable. The Hebrew word thus rendered (mashal) has a wide signification. It comes from a root "meaning "to be like," "parable." Rendered "proverb" in Isa." "14:4; Hab. ... Read more about Proverb...

Proverbs Book of

A collection of moral and philosophical maxims of a wide range of subjects presented in a poetic form. This book sets forth the philosophy of practical life. It is the sign to us that the Bible does ... Read more about Proverbs Book of...

Providence

"Literally means foresight, but is generally used to denote God's" preserving and governing all things by means of second causes (Ps. 18:35; 63:8; Acts 17:28; Col. 1:17; Heb. 1:3). God's providence e ... Read more about Providence...

Psalms

"The psalms are the production of various authors. "Only a" portion of the Book of Psalms claims David as its author. Other inspired poets in successive generations added now one now "another contrib ... Read more about Psalms...

Psaltery

"A musical instrument, supposed to have been a kind of lyre, or a" "harp with twelve strings. The Hebrew word nebhel, so rendered," "is translated "viol" in Isa. 5:12 (R.V., "lute"); 14:11. In Dan." ... Read more about Psaltery...

Ptolemais

A maritime city of Galilee (Acts 21:7). It was originally called "Accho (q.v.), and received the name Ptolemais from Ptolemy" Soter when he was in possession of Coele-Syria. ... Read more about Ptolemais...

Puah

"Splendid. (1.) One of the two midwives who feared God, and" refused to kill the Hebrew male children at their birth (Ex. 1:15-21). "(2.) A descendant of Issachar (Judg. 10:1). ... Read more about Puah...

Publican

"One who farmed the taxes (e.g., Zacchaeus, Luke 19:2) to be" "levied from a town or district, and thus undertook to pay to the" supreme government a certain amount. In order to collect the "taxes, t ... Read more about Publican...

Publius

"the chief man of the island of Malta (Acts 28:7), who" courteously entertained Paul and his shipwrecked companions for "three days, till they found a more permanent place of residence;" "for they re ... Read more about Publius...

Pudens

"Bashful, a Christian at Rome, who sent his greetings to Timothy" (2 Tim. 4:21). (See [511]CLAUDIA.) ... Read more about Pudens...

Pul

(1.) An Assyrian king. It has been a question whether he was "identical with Tiglath-pileser III. (q.v.), or was his" predecessor. The weight of evidence is certainly in favour of their identity. Pul ... Read more about Pul...

Pulpit

(Neh. 8:4). (See [512]EZRA.) ... Read more about Pulpit...

Pulse

"(Dan. 1:12, 16), R.V. "herbs," vegetable food in general." ... Read more about Pulse...

Punishment

The New Testament lays down the general principles of good "government, but contains no code of laws for the punishment of" offenders. Punishment proceeds on the principle that there is an "eternal d ... Read more about Punishment...

Pur Purim

"A lot, lots, a festival instituted by the Jews (Esther 9:24-32)" in ironical commemoration of Haman's consultation of the Pur (a "Persian word), for the purpose of ascertaining the auspicious" day f ... Read more about Pur Purim...

Purification

"The process by which a person unclean, according to the" "Levitical law, and thereby cut off from the sanctuary and the" "festivals, was restored to the enjoyment of all these" privileges. "The grea ... Read more about Purification...

Purse

"(1.) Gr. balantion, a bag (Luke 10:4; 22:35, 36)." "(2.) Gr. zone, properly a girdle (Matt. 10:9; Mark 6:8), a money-belt. As to our Lord's sending forth his disciples without "money in their purses ... Read more about Purse...

Put Phut

(1.) One of the sons of Ham (Gen. 10:6). "(2.) A land or people from among whom came a portion of the "mercenary troops of Egypt, Jer. 46:9 (A.V., "Libyans," but" "correctly, R.V., "Put"); Ezek. 27:1 ... Read more about Put Phut...

Puteoli

"A city on the coast of Campania, on the north shore of a bay" "running north from the Bay of Naples, at which Paul landed on" "his way to Rome, from which it was distant 170 miles. Here he" "tarried ... Read more about Puteoli...

Pygarg

"Heb. dishon, "springing", (Deut. 14:5), one of the animals" permitted for food. It is supposed to be the Antelope addax. It "is described as "a large animal, over 3 1/2 feet high at the" "shoulder, ... Read more about Pygarg...

"Q"

Quails

"The Israelites were twice relieved in their privation by a "miraculous supply of quails, (1) in the wilderness of Sin (Ex." "16:13), and (2) again at Kibroth-hattaavah (q.v.), Num. 11:31." "God "rai ... Read more about Quails...

Quarantania

"A mountain some 1,200 feet high, about 7 miles north-west of" "Jericho, the traditional scene of our Lord's temptation (Matt." 4:8). ... Read more about Quarantania...

Quarries

"(1.) The "Royal Quarries" (not found in Scripture) is the name" given to the vast caverns stretching far underneath the northern "hill, Bezetha, on which Jerusalem is built. Out of these mammoth" "c ... Read more about Quarries...

Quartus

"Fourth, a Corinthian Christian who sent by Paul his salutations" to friends at Rome (Rom. 16:23). ... Read more about Quartus...

Quaternion

A band of four soldiers. Peter was committed by Herod to the "custody of four quaternions, i.e., one quaternion for each watch" of the night (Acts 12:4). Thus every precaution was taken against his e ... Read more about Quaternion...

Queen

"No explicit mention of queens is made till we read of the "queen" "of Sheba." The wives of the kings of Israel are not so" "designated. In Ps. 45:9, the Hebrew for "queen" is not malkah," "one actua ... Read more about Queen...

Queen of heaven

"(Jer. 7:18; 44:17, 25), the moon, worshipped by the Assyrians as" the receptive power in nature. ... Read more about Queen of heaven...

Quicksands

"Found only in Acts 27:17, the rendering of the Greek Syrtis. On" the north coast of Africa were two localities dangerous to "sailors, called the Greater and Lesser Syrtis. The former of" "these is p ... Read more about Quicksands...

Quiver

The sheath for arrows. The Hebrew word (aspah) thus commonly rendered is found in Job 39:23; Ps. 127:5; Isa. 22:6; 49:2; Jer. 5:16; Lam. 3:13. In Gen. 27:3 this word is the rendering of the "Hebrew t ... Read more about Quiver...

Quotations

"From the Old Testament in the New, which are very numerous, are" not made according to any uniform method. When the New Testament "was written, the Old was not divided, as it now is, into" "chapters ... Read more about Quotations...

"R"

Raamah

"Thunder. (1.) One of the sons of Cush (Gen. 10:7). (2.) A country which traded with Tyre (Ezek. 27:22). ... Read more about Raamah...

Raamiah

"Thunder of the Lord, one of the princes who returned from the" Exile (Neh. 7:7); called also Reelaiah (Ezra 2:2). ... Read more about Raamiah...

Raamses

(Ex. 1:11). (See [516]RAMESES.) ... Read more about Raamses...

Rabbah

"Or Rab'bath, great. (1.) "Rabbath of the children of Ammon," the" "chief city of the Ammonites, among the eastern hills, some 20" "miles east of the Jordan, on the southern of the two streams" which ... Read more about Rabbah...

Rabbi

"My master, a title of dignity given by the Jews to their doctors" of the law and their distinguished teachers. It is sometimes "applied to Christ (Matt. 23:7, 8; Mark 9:5 (R.V.); John 1:38," "49; 3: ... Read more about Rabbi...

Rabboni

"(id.) occurs only twice in the New Testament (Mark 10:51, A.V.," "Lord, R.V., "Rabboni;" John 20:16). It was the most honourable" of all the titles. ... Read more about Rabboni...

Rabmag

"Assyrian Rab-mugi, "chief physician," "who was attached to the" "king (Jer. 39:3, 13), the title of one of Sennacherib's officers" sent with messages to Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem (2 Kings ... Read more about Rabmag...

Rabsaris

"Chief of the Heads, one of the three officers whom Sennacherib" sent from Lachish with a threatening message to Jerusalem (2 "Kings 18:17; Jer. 39:3, 13)." ... Read more about Rabsaris...

Rabshakeh

"Chief of the princes, the name given to the chief cup-bearer or" the vizier of the Assyrian court; one of Sennacherib's "messengers to Hezekiah. See the speech he delivered, in the" "Hebrew language ... Read more about Rabshakeh...

Raca

"Vain, empty, worthless, only found in Matt. 5:22. The Jews used" "it as a word of contempt. It is derived from a root meaning "to" "spit." ... Read more about Raca...

Rachab

"=Rahab, a name found in the genealogy of our Lord (Matt. 1:5)." ... Read more about Rachab...

Rachal

"Traffic, a town in the tribe of Judah, to which David sent" presents from the spoils of his enemies (1 Sam. 30:29). ... Read more about Rachal...

Rachel

"Ewe, "the daughter", "the somewhat petulant, peevish, and" "self-willed though beautiful younger daughter" of Laban, and one" "of Jacob's wives (Gen. 29:6, 28). He served Laban fourteen years" "for ... Read more about Rachel...

Raguel

"Friend of God, (Num. 10:29)=Reuel (q.v.), Ex. 2:18, the" "father-in-law of Moses, and probably identical with Jethro" (q.v.). ... Read more about Raguel...

Rahab

"Insolence; pride, a poetical name applied to Egypt in Ps. 87:4;" "89:10; Isa. 51:9, as "the proud one." "Rahab, (Heb. Rahab; i.e., "broad," "large"). When the Hebrews "were encamped at Shittim, in t ... Read more about Rahab...

Raham

"Merciful, one of the descendants of Caleb, the son of Hezron (1" Chr. 2:44). ... Read more about Raham...

Rain

There are three Hebrew words used to denote the rains of "different seasons, (1.) Yoreh (Hos. 6:3), or moreh (Joel 2:23)," "denoting the former or the early rain. (2.) Melqosh, the "latter" "rain" (P ... Read more about Rain...

Rainbow

Caused by the reflection and refraction of the rays of the sun shining on falling rain. It was appointed as a witness of the "divine faithfulness (Gen. 9:12-17). It existed indeed before," "but it wa ... Read more about Rainbow...

Raisins

Dried grapes; mentioned 1 Sam. 25:18; 30:12; 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Chr. 12:40 ... Read more about Raisins...

Rakkath

"Shore-town, a "fenced city" of the tribe of Naphtali (Josh." "19:35). The old name of Tiberias, according to the Rabbins." ... Read more about Rakkath...

Rakkon

"A place upon the shore, a town belonging to Dan (Josh. 19:46)." "It is now Tell er-Rakkeit, 6 miles north of Joppa, on the" "sea-shore, near the mouth of the river `Aujeh, i.e., "yellow" "water." (S ... Read more about Rakkon...

Ram

"Exalted. (1.) The son of Hezron, and one of the ancestors of the" "royal line (Ruth 4:19). The margin of 1 Chr. 2:9, also Matt." "1:3, 4 and Luke 3:33, have "Aram." "(2.) One of the sons of Jerahmee ... Read more about Ram...

Rama

"(Matt. 2:18), the Greek form of Ramah. (1.) A city first" "mentioned in Josh. 18:25, near Gibeah of Benjamin. It was" "fortified by Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kings 15:17-22; 2 Chr." "16:1-6). Asa, k ... Read more about Rama...

Ramath of the south

(Heb. Ramath-negeb). The Heb. negeb is the general designation for south or south-west of Judah. This was one of the towns of "Simeon (Josh. 19:8). It is the same as "south Ramoth" (1 Sam." "30:27; R ... Read more about Ramath of the south...

Ramathaimzophim

The two heights of the Zophites or of the watchers (only in 1 "Sam. 1:1), "in the land of Zuph" (9:5). Ramathaim is another" name for Ramah (4). "One of the Levitical families descended from Kohath, ... Read more about Ramathaimzophim...

Ramathite

"The designation given to Shimei, the manager of David's vineyard" (1 Chr. 27:27). ... Read more about Ramathite...

Ramathlehi

"Elevation of Lehi, or the jawbone height; i.e., the Ramah of" "Lehi (Judg. 15:15-17). The phrase "in the jaw," ver. 19," "Authorized Version, is in the margin, also in the Revised" "Version, "in Leh ... Read more about Ramathlehi...

Ramathmizpeh

"The height of Mizpeh or of the watch-tower (Josh. 13:26), a" place mentioned as one of the limits of Gad. There were two Mizpehs on the east of the Jordan. This was the Mizpeh where "Jacob and Laban ... Read more about Ramathmizpeh...

Rameses

"the land of (Gen. 47:11), was probably "the land of Goshen" "(q.v.) 45:10. After the Hebrews had built Rameses, one of the" "treasure cities, it came to be known as the "land" in which" that city wa ... Read more about Rameses...

Ramoth

Heights. A Levitical city in the tribe of Issachar (1 Sam. "30:27; 1 Chr. 6:73), the same as Jarmuth (Josh. 21:29) and" "Remeth (q.v.), 19:21." ... Read more about Ramoth...

Ramothgilead

"Heights of Gilead, a city of refuge on the east of Jordan;" "called "Ramoth in Gilead" (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 21:38). Here" "Ahab, who joined Jehoshaphat in an endeavour to rescue it from" "the ha ... Read more about Ramothgilead...

Ranges

(1.) Lev. 11:35. Probably a cooking furnace for two or more "pots, as the Hebrew word here is in the dual number; or perhaps" a fire-place fitted to receive a pair of ovens. "(2.) 2 Kings 11:8. A Heb ... Read more about Ranges...

Ransom

"The price or payment made for our redemption, as when it is said" "that the Son of man "gave his life a ransom for many" (Matt." "20:28; comp. Acts 20:28; Rom. 3:23, 24; 1 Cor. 6:19, 20; Gal." "3:13 ... Read more about Ransom...

Rapha

"Tall. (1.) A Benjamite, the son of Binea (1 Chr. 8:2, 37), a" "descendant of Saul. (2.) Margin of 1 Chr. 20:4, 6, where "giant" is given in the text. ... Read more about Rapha...

Raphu

"Healed, a Benjamite, whose son Palti was one of the twelve spies" (Num. 13:9). ... Read more about Raphu...

Raven

"Heb. `orebh, from a root meaning "to be black" (comp. Cant." "5:11); first mentioned as "sent forth" by Noah from the ark" "(Gen. 8:7). "Every raven after his kind" was forbidden as food" "(Lev. 11: ... Read more about Raven...

Razor

The Nazarites were forbidden to make use of the razor (Num. 6:5; Judg. 13:5). At their consecration the Levites were shaved all over with a razor (Num. 8:7; comp. Ps. 52:2; Ezek. 5:1). ... Read more about Razor...

Reba

"Fourth, one of the Midianite chiefs slain by the Israelites in" the wilderness (Num. 31:8; Josh. 13:21). ... Read more about Reba...

Rebekah

"A noose, the daughter of Bethuel, and the wife of Isaac (Gen." "22:23; 24:67). The circumstances under which Abraham's "steward" "found her at the "city of Nahor," in Padan-aram, are narrated in" "G ... Read more about Rebekah...

Rechab

"Horseman, or chariot. (1.) One of Ishbosheth's "captains of" "bands" or leaders of predatory troops (2 Sam. 4:2)." "(2.) The father of Jehonadab, who was the father of the "Rechabites (2 Kings 10:15 ... Read more about Rechab...

Rechabites

The descendants of Rechab through Jonadab or Jehonadab. They "belonged to the Kenites, who accompanied the children of Israel" "into Palestine, and dwelt among them. Moses married a Kenite" "wife (Ju ... Read more about Rechabites...

Reconcilation

"A change from enmity to friendship. It is mutual, i.e., it is a" change wrought in both parties who have been at enmity. "(1.) In Col. 1:21, 22, the word there used refers to a change wrought in the ... Read more about Reconcilation...

Recorder

"(Heb. mazkir, i.e., "the mentioner," "rememberancer"), the" office first held by Jehoshaphat in the court of David (2 Sam. "8:16), also in the court of Solomon (1 Kings 4:3). The next" "recorder men ... Read more about Recorder...

Red Sea

The sea so called extends along the west coast of Arabia for "about 1,400 miles, and separates Asia from Africa. It is" "connected with the Indian Ocean, of which it is an arm, by the" Strait of Bab- ... Read more about Red Sea...

Red Sea Passage of

The account of the march of the Israelites through the Red Sea is given in Ex. 14:22-31. There has been great diversity of opinion as to the precise place where this occurred. The difficulty of arriv ... Read more about Red Sea Passage of...

Redeemer

"Heb. goel; i.e., one charged with the duty of restoring the" "rights of another and avenging his wrongs (Lev. 25:48, 49; Num." "5:8; Ruth 4:1; Job 19:25; Ps. 19:14; 78:35, etc.). This title is" pecu ... Read more about Redeemer...

Redemption

"The purchase back of something that had been lost, by the" "payment of a ransom. The Greek word so rendered is apolutrosis," "a word occurring nine times in Scripture, and always with the" "idea of ... Read more about Redemption...

Reed

"(1.) "Paper reeds" (Isa. 19:7; R.V., "reeds"). Heb. `aroth," properly green herbage growing in marshy places. "(2.) Heb. kaneh (1 Kings 14:15; Job 40:21; Isa. 19:6), whence "the Gr. kanna, a "cane," ... Read more about Reed...

Refiner

The process of refining metals is referred to by way of "illustrations in Isa. 1:25; Jer. 6:29; Zech. 13:9; Mal. 3:2, 3." ... Read more about Refiner...

Refuge Cities of

Were six in number (Num. 35). 1. On the west of Jordan were (1) "Kadesh, in Naphtali; (2) Shechem, in Mount Ephraim; (3) Hebron," "in Judah. 2. On the east of Jordan were, (1) Golan, in Bashan;" "(2) ... Read more about Refuge Cities of...

Regemmelech

"Friend of the king, one of the two messengers sent by the exiled" Jews to Jerusalem in the time of Darius (Zech. 7:2) to make inquiries at the temple. ... Read more about Regemmelech...

Regeneration

Only found in Matt. 19:28 and Titus 3:5. This word literally "means a "new birth." The Greek word so rendered (palingenesia)" is used by classical writers with reference to the changes produced by th ... Read more about Regeneration...

Rehabiah

"Enlargement of the Lord, the son of Eliezer, and grandson of" Moses (1 Chr. 23:17; 24:21). ... Read more about Rehabiah...

Rehob

"Street; broad place. (1.) The father of Hadadezer, king of Tobah" "(2 Sam. 8:3, 12)." "(2.) Neh. 10:11. "(3.) The same, probably, as Beth-rehob (2 Sam. 10:6, 8; Judg. "18:28), a place in the north o ... Read more about Rehob...

Rehoboam

"He enlarges the people, the successor of Solomon on the throne," "and apparently his only son. He was the son of Naamah "the" "Ammonitess," some well-known Ammonitish princess (1 Kings 14:21;" 2 Chr ... Read more about Rehoboam...

Rehoboth

"Broad places. (1.) A well in Gerar dug by Isaac (Gen. 26:22)," "supposed to be in Wady er-Ruheibeh, about 20 miles south of" Beersheba. "(2.) An ancient city on the Euphrates (Gen. 36:37; 1 Chr. 1:4 ... Read more about Rehoboth...

Rehum

"Merciful. (1.) One of "the children of the province" who" "returned from the Captivity (Ezra 2:2); the same as "Nehum" (Neh. 7:7). "(2.) The "chancellor" of Artaxerxes, who sought to stir him up aga ... Read more about Rehum...

Rei

"Friendly, one who maintained true allegiance to king David (1" Kings 1:8) when Adonijah rebelled. ... Read more about Rei...

Reins

"The kidneys, the supposed seat of the desires and affections;" "used metaphorically for "heart." The "reins" and the "heart" are" "often mentioned together, as denoting the whole moral" "constitutio ... Read more about Reins...

Rekem

Embroidered; variegated. (1.) One of the five Midianite kings whom the Israelites destroyed (Num. 31:8). "(2.) One of the sons of Hebron (1 Chr. 2:43, 44). "(3.) A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18:27). ... Read more about Rekem...

Remaliah

"Adorned by the Lord, the father of Pekah, who conspired" "successfully against Pekahiah (2 Kings 15:25, 27, 30, 32, 37;" "Isa. 7:1, 4, 5, 9; 8:6)." ... Read more about Remaliah...

Remeth

Another form of Ramah (q.v.) or Ramoth (1 Chr. 6:73; Josh. "19:21), and probably also of Jarmuth (Josh. 21:29)." ... Read more about Remeth...

Remmonmethoar

"(Josh. 19:13), rendered correctly in the Revised Version," "Rimmon, which stretcheth unto Neah, a landmark of Zebulun;" called also Rimmon (1 Chr. 6:77). ... Read more about Remmonmethoar...

Remphan

"(Acts 7:43; R.V., "Rephan"). In Amos 5:26 the Heb. Chiun (q.v.)" "is rendered by the LXX. "Rephan," and this name is adopted by" Luke in his narrative of the Acts. These names represent the star-god ... Read more about Remphan...

Rent

"(Isa. 3:24), probably a rope, as rendered in the LXX. and" "Vulgate and Revised Version, or as some prefer interpreting the" "phrase, "girdle and robe are torn [i.e., are `a rent'] by the" "hand of ... Read more about Rent...

Repentance

There are three Greek words used in the New Testament to denote repentance. (1.) The verb metamelomai is used of a change of "mind, such as to produce regret or even remorse on account of" "sin, but ... Read more about Repentance...

Rephael

"Healed of God, one of Shemaiah's sons. He and his brethren, on" "account of their "strength for service," formed one of the" "divisions of the temple porters (1 Chr. 26:7, 8)." ... Read more about Rephael...

Rephaim

"Lofty men; giants, (Gen. 14:5; 2 Sam. 21:16, 18, marg. A.V.," "Rapha, marg. R.V., Raphah; Deut. 3:13, R.V.; A.V., "giants")." "The aborigines of Palestine, afterwards conquered and" "dispossessed by ... Read more about Rephaim...

Rephaim Valley of

"(Josh. 15:8; 18:16, R.V.). When David became king over all" "Israel, the Philistines, judging that he would now become their" "uncompromising enemy, made a sudden attack upon Hebron," "compelling Da ... Read more about Rephaim Valley of...

Rephidim

"Supports, one of the stations of the Israelites, situated in the" "Wady Feiran, near its junction with the Wady esh-Sheikh. Here no" "water could be found for the people to drink, and in their" "imp ... Read more about Rephidim...

Reprobate

That which is rejected on account of its own worthlessness (Jer. "6:30; Heb. 6:8; Gr. adokimos, "rejected"). This word is also" used with reference to persons cast away or rejected because they have ... Read more about Reprobate...

Rereward

"(Josh. 6:9), the troops in the rear of an army on the march, the" rear-guard. This word is a corruption of the French arriere-garde. During the wilderness march the tribe of Dan formed the rear-guar ... Read more about Rereward...

Resen

"Head of the stream; bridle, one of Nimrod's cities (Gen. 10:12)," between Nineveh and Calah. It has been supposed that the four cities named in this verse were afterwards combined into one under the ... Read more about Resen...

Rest

"(1.) Gr. katapausis, equivalent to the Hebrew word noah (Heb." 4:1). "(2.) Gr. anapausis, "rest from weariness" (Matt. 11:28). "(3.) Gr. anesis, "relaxation" (2 Thess. 1:7). "(4.) Gr. sabbatismos, a ... Read more about Rest...

Resurrection of Christ

One of the cardinal facts and doctrines of the gospel. If Christ "be not risen, our faith is vain (1 Cor. 15:14). The whole of the" New Testament revelation rests on this as an historical fact. On th ... Read more about Resurrection of Christ...

Resurrection of the dead

Will be simultaneous both of the just and the unjust (Dan. 12:2; "John 5:28, 29; Rom. 2:6-16; 2 Thess. 1:6-10). The qualities of" the resurrection body will be different from those of the body "laid ... Read more about Resurrection of the dead...

Reuben

"Behold a son!, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gen. 29:32)." "His sinful conduct, referred to in Gen. 35:22, brought down upon" him his dying father's malediction (48:4). He showed kindness to "Jo ... Read more about Reuben...

Reuben Tribe of

"At the Exodus numbered 46,500 male adults, from twenty years old" "and upwards (Num. 1:20, 21), and at the close of the wilderness" "wanderings they numbered only 43,730 (26:7). This tribe united" " ... Read more about Reuben Tribe of...

Reuel

"Friend of God. (1.) A son of Esau and Bashemath (Gen. 36:4, 10;" "1 Chr. 1:35). (2.) "The priest of Midian," Moses' father-in-law" (Ex. 2:18)=Raguel (Num. 10:29). If he be identified with Jethro "(q ... Read more about Reuel...

Revelation

"An uncovering, a bringing to light of that which had been" previously wholly hidden or only obscurely seen. God has been pleased in various ways and at different times (Heb. 1:1) to make a supernatu ... Read more about Revelation...

Revelation Book of

#NAME? of the New Testament canon. The author of this book was undoubtedly John the apostle. His name occurs four times in the "book itself (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), and there is every reason to" "conclude ... Read more about Revelation Book of...

Revelation of Christ

The second advent of Christ. Three different Greek words are "used by the apostles to express this, (1) apokalupsis (1 Cor." "1;7; 2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7, 13); (2) parousia (Matt. 24:3," "27; 1 The ... Read more about Revelation of Christ...

Rezeph

"Solid; a stone, (2 Kings 19:12; Isa. 37:12), a fortress near" "Haran, probably on the west of the Euphrates, conquered by" Sennacherib. ... Read more about Rezeph...

Rezin

"Firm; a prince, a king of Syria, who joined Pekah (q.v.) in an" invasion of the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 15:37; 16:5-9; Isa. "7:1-8). Ahaz induced Tiglath-pileser III. to attack Damascus," and this ... Read more about Rezin...

Rezon

"Prince, son of Eliadah. Abandoning the service of Hadadezer, the" "king of Zobah, on the occasion of his being defeated by David," "he became the "captain over a band" of marauders, and took" "Damas ... Read more about Rezon...

Rhegium

"Breach, a town in the south of Italy, on the Strait of Messina," at which Paul touched on his way to Rome (Acts 28:13). It is now called Rheggio. ... Read more about Rhegium...

Rhesa

"Affection, son of Zorobabel, mentioned in the genealogy of our" Lord (Luke 3:27). ... Read more about Rhesa...

Rhoda

"A rose, the damsel in the house of Mary, the mother of John" Mark. She came to hearken when Peter knocked at the door of the gate (Acts 12:12-15). ... Read more about Rhoda...

Rhodes

"A rose, an island to the south of the western extremity of Asia" "Minor, between Coos and Patara, about 46 miles long and 18 miles" broad. Here the apostle probably landed on his way from Greece "to ... Read more about Rhodes...

Riblah

"Fruitful, an ancient town on the northern frontier of Palestine," "35 miles north-east of Baalbec, and 10 or 12 south of Lake Homs," "on the eastern bank of the Orontes, in a wide and fertile plain. ... Read more about Riblah...

Riddle

"(Heb. hodah). The oldest and, strictly speaking, the only" example of a riddle was that propounded by Samson (Judg. 14:12-18). The parabolic prophecy in Ezek. 17:2-18 is there "called a "riddle." It ... Read more about Riddle...

Righteousness

See [535]JUSTIFICATION. ... Read more about Righteousness...

Rimmon

"Pomegranate. (1.) A man of Beeroth (2 Sam. 4:2), one of the four" Gibeonite cities. (See Josh. 9:17.) "(2.) A Syrian idol, mentioned only in 2 Kings 5:18. "(3.) One of the "uttermost cities" of Juda ... Read more about Rimmon...

Rimmonparez

"A pomegranate breach, or Rimmon of the breach, one of the" "stations of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 33:19, 20)." ... Read more about Rimmonparez...

Ring

"Used as an ornament to decorate the fingers, arms, wrists, and" also the ears and the nose. Rings were used as a signet (Gen. 38:18). They were given as a token of investment with authority "(Gen. 4 ... Read more about Ring...

Riphath

"A crusher, Gomer's second son (Gen. 10:3), supposed to have been" the ancestor of the Paphlagonians. ... Read more about Riphath...

Rissah

"Heap of ruins; dew, a station of the Israelites in the" "wilderness (Num. 33:21, 22)." ... Read more about Rissah...

Rithmah

"Wild broom, a station in the wilderness (Num. 33:18, 19), the" "broom valley, or "valley of broombushes," the place apparently" "of the original encampment of Israel, near Kadesh." ... Read more about Rithmah...

River

"(1.) Heb. `aphik, properly the channel or ravine that holds" "water (2 Sam. 22:16), translated "brook," "river," "stream," but" not necessarily a perennial stream (Ezek. 6:3; 31:12; 32:6; 34:13). "( ... Read more about River...

River of Egypt

"(1.) Heb. nahar mitsraim, denotes in Gen. 15:18 the Nile, or its" "eastern branch (2 Chr. 9:26). (2.) In Num. 34:5 (R.V., "brook of" "Egypt") the Hebrew word is nahal, denoting a stream flowing" "ra ... Read more about River of Egypt...

River of Gad

Probably the Arno (2 Sam. 24:5). ... Read more about River of Gad...

River of God

"(Ps. 65:9), as opposed to earthly streams, denoting that the" "divine resources are inexhaustible, or the sum of all" fertilizing streams that water the earth (Gen. 2:10). ... Read more about River of God...

Rivers of Babylon

"(Ps. 137:1), i.e., of the whole country of Babylonia, e.g., the" "Tigris, Euphrates, Chalonas, the Ulai, and the numerous canals." ... Read more about Rivers of Babylon...

Rivers of Damascus

The Abana and Pharpar (2 Kings 5:12). ... Read more about Rivers of Damascus...

Rivers of Judah

"(Joel 3:18), the watercourses of Judea." ... Read more about Rivers of Judah...

Rizpah

"Coal; hot stone, the daughter of Aiah, and one of Saul's" concubines. She was the mother of Armoni and Mephibosheth (2 "Sam. 3:7; 21:8, 10, 11)." "It happened that a grievous famine, which lasted fo ... Read more about Rizpah...

Road

"(1 Sam. 27:10; R.V., "raid"), an inroad, an incursion. This word" is never used in Scripture in the sense of a way or path. ... Read more about Road...

Robbery

"Practised by the Ishmaelites (Gen. 16:12), the Chaldeans and" "Sabeans (Job 1:15, 17), and the men of Shechem (Judg. 9:25. See" also 1 Sam. 27:6-10; 30; Hos. 4:2; 6:9). Robbers infested Judea "in ou ... Read more about Robbery...

Rock

"(Heb. tsur), employed as a symbol of God in the Old Testament (1" "Sam. 2:2; 2 Sam. 22:3; Isa. 17:10; Ps. 28:1; 31:2, 3; 89:26;" 95:1); also in the New Testament (Matt. 16:18; Rom. 9:33; 1 Cor. 10:4 ... Read more about Rock...

Roe

"(Heb. tsebi), properly the gazelle (Arab. ghazal), permitted for" "food (Deut. 14:5; comp. Deut. 12:15, 22; 15:22; 1 Kings 4:23)," noted for its swiftness and beauty and grace of form (2 Sam. 2:18; ... Read more about Roe...

Rogelim

"Fullers, a town of Gilead, the residence of Barzillai the" "Gileadite (2 Sam. 17:27; 19:31), probably near to Mahanaim." ... Read more about Rogelim...

Roll

The common form of ancient books. The Hebrew word rendered "roll or "volume" is meghillah, found in Ezra 6:2; Ps. 40:7;" "Jer. 36:2, 6, 23, 28, 29; Ezek. 2:9; 3:1-3; Zech. 5:1, 2." "Rolls (Chald. pl. ... Read more about Roll...

Romamtiezer

"Elevation of help, one of the sons of Heman, "the king's seer in" "the words of God, to lift up the horn." He was head of the" "four-and-twentieth course of singers (1 Chr. 25:4, 31)." ... Read more about Romamtiezer...

Romans Epistle to the

This epistle was probably written at Corinth. Phoebe (Rom. 16:1) "of Cenchrea conveyed it to Rome, and Gaius of Corinth" entertained the apostle at the time of his writing it (16:23; 1 "Cor. 1:14), a ... Read more about Romans Epistle to the...

Rome

The most celebrated city in the world at the time of Christ. It is said to have been founded B.C. 753. When the New Testament "was written, Rome was enriched and adorned with the spoils of" "the worl ... Read more about Rome...

Rose

Many varieties of the rose proper are indigenous to Syria. The "famed rose of Damascus is white, but there are also red and" yellow roses. In Cant. 2:1 and Isa. 35:1 the Hebrew word "habatstseleth (f ... Read more about Rose...

Rosh

"(Ezek. 38:2, 3; 39:1) is rendered "chief" in the Authorized" Version. It is left untranslated as a proper name in the Revised "Version. Some have supposed that the Russians are here meant, as" one o ... Read more about Rosh...

Rosin

"Found only in Authorized Version, margin, Ezek. 27:17, Heb." "tsori, uniformly rendered elsewhere "balm" (q.v.), as here in" "the text. The Vulgate has resinam, rendered "rosin" in the Douay" "Versi ... Read more about Rosin...

Ruby

"(Heb. peninim), only in plural (Lam. 4:7). The ruby was one of" the stones in the high priest's breastplate (Ex. 28:17). A comparison is made between the value of wisdom and rubies (Job 28:18; Prov. ... Read more about Ruby...

Rudder bands

Ancient ships had two great broad-bladed oars for rudders. "These, when not in use, were lifted out of the water and bound" "or tied up. When required for use, these bands were unloosed and" the rudd ... Read more about Rudder bands...

Rue

A garden herb (Ruta graveolens) which the Pharisees were careful "to tithe (Luke 11:42), neglecting weightier matters. It is" omitted in the parallel passage of Matt. 23:23. There are several species ... Read more about Rue...

Rufus

"Red, the son of Simon the Cyrenian (Mark 15:21), whom the Roman" soldiers compelled to carry the cross on which our Lord was crucified. Probably it is the same person who is again mentioned "in Rom. ... Read more about Rufus...

Ruhamah

"Having obtained mercy, a symbolical name given to the daughter" of Hosea (2:1). ... Read more about Ruhamah...

Rumah

"Elevation, probably the same as Arumah (Judg. 9:41; 2 Kings" "23:36), near Shechem. Others identify it with Tell Rumeh, in" "Galilee, about 6 miles north of Nazareth." ... Read more about Rumah...

Rush

The papyrus (Job 8:11). (See [542]BULRUSH.) The expression "branch and rush in Isa. 9:14; 19:15 means "utterly." ... Read more about Rush...

Ruth

"A friend, a Moabitess, the wife of Mahlon, whose father," "Elimelech, had settled in the land of Moab. On the death of" "Elimelech and Mahlon, Naomi came with Ruth, her daughter-in-law," "who refuse ... Read more about Ruth...

Ruth The Book of

"Was originally a part of the Book of Judges, but it now forms" one of the twenty-four separate books of the Hebrew Bible. "The history it contains refers to a period perhaps about one hundred and tw ... Read more about Ruth The Book of...

Rye

"=Rie, (Heb. kussemeth), found in Ex. 9:32; Isa. 28:25, in all of" which the margins of the Authorized and of the Revised Versions "have "spelt." This Hebrew word also occurs in Ezek. 4:9, where" "th ... Read more about Rye...

"S"

Sabachthani

"Thou hast forsaken me, one of the Aramaic words uttered by our Lord on the cross (Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34). ... Read more about Sabachthani...

Sabaoth

"The transliteration of the Hebrew word tsebha'oth, meaning" "hosts, "armies" (Rom. 9:29; James 5:4). In the LXX. the Hebrew" "word is rendered by "Almighty." (See Rev. 4:8; comp. Isa. 6:3.)" It may ... Read more about Sabaoth...

Sabbath

"(Heb. verb shabbath, meaning "to rest from labour"), the day of" rest. It is first mentioned as having been instituted in "Paradise, when man was in innocence (Gen. 2:2). "The sabbath was" "made for ... Read more about Sabbath...

Sabbath days journey

"Supposed to be a distance of 2,000 cubits, or less than" "half-a-mile, the distance to which, according to Jewish" "tradition, it was allowable to travel on the Sabbath day without" violating the la ... Read more about Sabbath days journey...

Sabbatical year

"Every seventh year, during which the land, according to the law" "of Moses, had to remain uncultivated (Lev. 25:2-7; comp. Ex." "23:10, 11, 12; Lev. 26:34, 35). Whatever grew of itself during" "that ... Read more about Sabbatical year...

Sabeans

Descendants of Seba (Gen. 10:7); Africans (Isa. 43:3). They were "men of stature, and engaged in merchandise (Isa. 45:14). Their" "conversion to the Lord was predicted (Ps. 72:10). This word, in" "Ez ... Read more about Sabeans...

Sabtah

"Rest, the third son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chr. 1:9)." ... Read more about Sabtah...

Sabtecha

The fifth son of Cush (id.). ... Read more about Sabtecha...

Sachar

Hire. (1.) One of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:35); called also Sharar (2 Sam. 23:33). "(2.) A son of Obed-edom the Gittite, and a temple porter (1 Chr. 26:4). ... Read more about Sachar...

Sackbut

"(Chald. sabkha; Gr. sambuke), a Syrian stringed instrument" "resembling a harp (Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15); not the modern sackbut," which is a wind instrument. ... Read more about Sackbut...

Sackcloth

"Cloth made of black goats' hair, coarse, rough, and thick, used" "for sacks, and also worn by mourners (Gen. 37:34; 42:25; 2 Sam." "3:31; Esther 4:1, 2; Ps. 30:11, etc.), and as a sign of" repentanc ... Read more about Sackcloth...

Sacrifice

The offering up of sacrifices is to be regarded as a divine institution. It did not originate with man. God himself appointed it as the mode in which acceptable worship was to be offered to him by gu ... Read more about Sacrifice...

Sadducees

The origin of this Jewish sect cannot definitely be traced. It was probably the outcome of the influence of Grecian customs and philosophy during the period of Greek domination. The first time they a ... Read more about Sadducees...

Sadoc

"Just, mentioned in the genealogy of our Lord (Matt. 1:14)." ... Read more about Sadoc...

Saffron

"Heb. karkom, Arab. zafran (i.e., "yellow"), mentioned only in" "Cant. 4:13, 14; the Crocus sativus. Many species of the crocus" "are found in Palestine. The pistils and stigmata, from the" "centre o ... Read more about Saffron...

Saint

One separated from the world and consecrated to God; one holy by profession and by covenant; a believer in Christ (Ps. 16:3; Rom. 1:7; 8:27; Phil. 1:1; Heb. 6:10). "The "saints" spoken of in Jude 1:1 ... Read more about Saint...

Sala

"A shoot, a descendant of Arphaxed (Luke 3:35, 36); called also" "Shelah (1 Chr. 1:18, 24)." ... Read more about Sala...

Salamis

"A city on the south-east coast of Cyprus (Acts 13:5), where Saul" "and Barnabas, on their first missionary journey, preached the" "word in one of the Jewish synagogues, of which there seem to" have ... Read more about Salamis...

Salathiel

"Whom I asked of God, the son of Jeconiah (Matt. 1:12; 1 Chr." 3:17); also called the son of Neri (Luke 3:27). The probable explanation of the apparent discrepancy is that he was the son "of Neri, th ... Read more about Salathiel...

Salcah

"Wandering, a city of Bashan assigned to the half tribe of" "Manasseh (Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11), identified with" "Salkhad, about 56 miles east of Jordan." ... Read more about Salcah...

Salem

"Peace, commonly supposed to be another name of Jerusalem (Gen." "14:18; Ps. 76:2; Heb. 7:1, 2)." ... Read more about Salem...

Salim

"Peaceful, a place near AEnon (q.v.), on the west of Jordan," where John baptized (John 3:23). It was probably the Shalem "mentioned in Gen. 33:18, about 7 miles south of AEnon, at the" "head of the ... Read more about Salim...

Sallai

Basket-maker. (1.) A Benjamite (Neh. 11:8). "(2.) A priest in the days of Joshua and Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:20). ... Read more about Sallai...

Sallu

Weighed. (1.) A priest (Neh. 12:7). "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 9:7; Neh. 11:7). ... Read more about Sallu...

Salmon

"Garment, the son of Nashon (Ruth 4:20; Matt. 1:4, 5), possibly" the same as Salma in 1 Chr. 2:51. ... Read more about Salmon...

Salmon

"Shady; or Zalmon (q.v.), a hill covered with dark forests, south" "of Shechem, from which Abimelech and his men gathered wood to" burn that city (Judg. 9:48). In Ps. 68:14 the change from war to "pe ... Read more about Salmon...

Salmone

"A promontory on the east of Crete, under which Paul sailed on" his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7); the modern Cape Sidero. ... Read more about Salmone...

Salome

Perfect. (1.) The wife of Zebedee and mother of James and John "(Mat. 27:56), and probably the sister of Mary, the mother of our" Lord (John 19:25). She sought for her sons places of honour in "Chris ... Read more about Salome...

Salt

"Used to season food (Job 6:6), and mixed with the fodder of" "cattle (Isa. 30:24, "clean;" in marg. of R.V. "salted"). All" meat-offerings were seasoned with salt (Lev. 2:13). To eat salt "with one ... Read more about Salt...

Salt Sea

(Josh. 3:16). See DEAD [545]SEA. ... Read more about Salt Sea...

Salt The city of

"One of the cities of Judah (Josh. 15:62), probably in the Valley" "of Salt, at the southern end of the Dead Sea." ... Read more about Salt The city of...

Salt Valley of

A place where it is said David smote the Syrians (2 Sam. 8:13). This valley (the' Arabah) is between Judah and Edom on the south "of the Dead Sea. Hence some interpreters would insert the words," "an ... Read more about Salt Valley of...

Salutation

Eastern modes of salutation are not unfrequently so prolonged as to become wearisome and a positive waste of time. The "profusely polite Arab asks so many questions after your health," "your happines ... Read more about Salutation...

Salvation

This word is used of the deliverance of the Israelites from the "Egyptians (Ex. 14:13), and of deliverance generally from evil or" danger. In the New Testament it is specially used with reference to ... Read more about Salvation...

Samaria

A watch-mountain or a watch-tower. In the heart of the mountains "of Israel, a few miles north-west of Shechem, stands the "hill" "of Shomeron," a solitary mountain, a great "mamelon." It is an" "obl ... Read more about Samaria...

Samaritan Pentateuch

"On the return from the Exile, the Jews refused the Samaritans" "participation with them in the worship at Jerusalem, and the" "latter separated from all fellowship with them, and built a" temple for ... Read more about Samaritan Pentateuch...

Samaritans

The name given to the new and mixed inhabitants whom Esarhaddon "(B.C. 677), the king of Assyria, brought from Babylon and other" "places and settled in the cities of Samaria, instead of the" origina ... Read more about Samaritans...

Samgarnebo

"Be gracious, O Nebo! or a cup-bearer of Nebo, probably the title" "of Nergal-sharezer, one of the princes of Babylon (Jer. 39:3)." ... Read more about Samgarnebo...

Samos

"An island in the AEgean Sea, which Paul passed on his voyage" "from Assos to Miletus (Acts 20:15), on his third missionary" "journey. It is about 27 miles long and 20 broad, and lies about" 42 miles ... Read more about Samos...

Samothracia

"An island in the AEgean Sea, off the coast of Thracia, about 32" miles distant. This Thracian Samos was passed by Paul on his voyage from Troas to Neapolis (Acts 16:11) on his first missionary journ ... Read more about Samothracia...

Samson

"Of the sun, the son of Manoah, born at Zorah. The narrative of" "his life is given in Judg. 13-16. He was a "Nazarite unto God" "from his birth, the first Nazarite mentioned in Scripture (Judg." 13: ... Read more about Samson...

Samuel

Heard of God. The peculiar circumstances connected with his "birth are recorded in 1 Sam. 1:20. Hannah, one of the two wives" "of Elkanah, who came up to Shiloh to worship before the Lord," earnestly ... Read more about Samuel...

Samuel Books of

The LXX. translators regarded the books of Samuel and of Kings "as forming one continuous history, which they divided into four" "books, which they called "Books of the Kingdom." The Vulgate" "versio ... Read more about Samuel Books of...

Sanballat

Held some place of authority in Samaria when Nehemiah went up to Jerusalem to rebuild its ruined walls. He vainly attempted to "hinder this work (Neh. 2:10, 19; 4:1-12; 6). His daughter became" "the ... Read more about Sanballat...

Sanctification

"Involves more than a mere moral reformation of character," brought about by the power of the truth: it is the work of the Holy Spirit bringing the whole nature more and more under the influences of ... Read more about Sanctification...

Sanctuary

"Denotes, (1) the Holy Land (Ex. 15:17; comp. Ps. 114:2); (2) the" temple (1 Chr. 22:19; 2 Chr. 29:21); (3) the tabernacle (Ex. "25:8; Lev. 12:4; 21:12); (4) the holy place, the place of the" "Presen ... Read more about Sanctuary...

Sandals

Mentioned only in Mark 6:9 and Acts 12:8. The sandal was simply "a sole, made of wood or palm-bark, fastened to the foot by" leathern straps. Sandals were also made of seal-skin (Ezek. "16:10; lit. t ... Read more about Sandals...

Sanhedrim

"More correctly Sanhedrin (Gr. synedrion), meaning "a sitting" "together," or a "council." This word (rendered "council," A.V.)" is frequently used in the New Testament (Matt. 5:22; 26:59; Mark "15:1 ... Read more about Sanhedrim...

Sansannah

"A palm branch, or a thorn bush, a town in the south (the negeb)" "of Judah (Josh. 15:31); called also Hazarsusah (19:5), or" Hazar-susim (1 Chr. 4:31). ... Read more about Sansannah...

Saph

"Extension, the son of the giant whom Sibbechai slew (2 Sam." 21:18); called also Sippai (1 Chr. 20:4). ... Read more about Saph...

Saphir

"Beautiful, a town of Judah (Micah 1:11), identified with" "es-Suafir, 5 miles south-east of Ashdod." ... Read more about Saphir...

Sapphira

"Beautiful, the wife of Ananias (q.v.). She was a partner in his" guilt and also in his punishment (Acts 5:1-11). ... Read more about Sapphira...

Sapphire

Associated with diamonds (Ex. 28:18) and emeralds (Ezek. 28:13); one of the stones in the high priest's breastplate. It is a "precious stone of a sky-blue colour, probably the lapis lazuli," brought ... Read more about Sapphire...

Sarah

"Princess, the wife and at the same time the half-sister of" Abraham (Gen. 11:29; 20:12). This name was given to her at the time that it was announced to Abraham that she should be the mother of the ... Read more about Sarah...

Sarai

"My princess, the name originally borne by Sarah (Gen. 11:31;" 17:15). ... Read more about Sarai...

Sardine stone

"(Rev. 4:3, R.V., "sardius;" Heb. `odhem; LXX., Gr. sardion, from" "a root meaning "red"), a gem of a blood-red colour. It was" "called "sardius" because obtained from Sardis in Lydia. It is" enumera ... Read more about Sardine stone...

Sardis

The metropolis of Lydia in Asia Minor. It stood on the river "Pactolus, at the foot of mount Tmolus. Here was one of the seven" Asiatic churches (Rev. 3:1-6). It is now a ruin called Sert-Kalessi. ... Read more about Sardis...

Sardonyx

"(Rev. 21:20), a species of the carnelian combining the sard and" "the onyx, having three layers of opaque spots or stripes on a" "transparent red basis. Like the sardine, it is a variety of the" cha ... Read more about Sardonyx...

Sarepta

(Luke 4:26). See [551]ZAREPHATH. ... Read more about Sarepta...

Sargon

"(In the inscriptions, "Sarra-yukin" [the god] has appointed the" "king; also "Sarru-kinu," the legitimate king.) On the death of" "Shalmaneser (B.C. 723), one of the Assyrian generals established" " ... Read more about Sargon...

Satan

"Adversary; accuser. When used as a proper name, the Hebrew word" "so rendered has the article "the adversary" (Job 1:6-12; 2:1-7)." In the New Testament it is used as interchangeable with "Diabolos, ... Read more about Satan...

Satyr

Hairy one. Mentioned in Greek mythology as a creature composed "of a man and a goat, supposed to inhabit wild and desolate" "regions. The Hebrew word is rendered also "goat" (Lev. 4:24) and" "devil, ... Read more about Satyr...

Saul

"Asked for. (1.) A king of Edom (Gen. 36:37, 38); called Shaul in" 1 Chr. 1:48. "(2.) The son of Kish (probably his only son, and a child of "prayer, "asked for"), of the tribe of Benjamin, the first ... Read more about Saul...

Saviour

One who saves from any form or degree of evil. In its highest sense the word indicates the relation sustained by our Lord to "his redeemed ones, he is their Saviour. The great message of the" "gospel ... Read more about Saviour...

Scapegoat

"Lev. 16:8-26; R.V., "the goat for Azazel" (q.v.), the name given" to the goat which was taken away into the wilderness on the day of Atonement (16:20-22). The priest made atonement over the "scapego ... Read more about Scapegoat...

Scarlet

This dye was obtained by the Egyptians from the shell-fish "Carthamus tinctorius; and by the Hebrews from the Coccus ilicis," "an insect which infests oak trees, called kermes by the" Arabians. "This ... Read more about Scarlet...

Sceptre

"(Heb. shebet = Gr. skeptron), properly a staff or rod. As a" "symbol of authority, the use of the sceptre originated in the" idea that the ruler was as a shepherd of his people (Gen. 49:10; Num. 24: ... Read more about Sceptre...

Sceva

"An implement, a Jew, chief of the priests at Ephesus (Acts" "19:13-16); i.e., the head of one of the twenty-four courses of" "the house of Levi. He had seven sons, who "took upon them to" call over ... Read more about Sceva...

Schism

"A separation, an alienation causing divisions among Christians," who ought to be united (1 Cor. 12:25). ... Read more about Schism...

Schoolmaster

"The law so designated by Paul (Gal. 3:24, 25). As so used, the" "word does not mean teacher, but pedagogue (shortened into the" "modern page), i.e., one who was intrusted with the supervision" "of a ... Read more about Schoolmaster...

Schools of the Prophets

"(1 Sam. 19:18-24; 2 Kings 2:3, 5, 7, 12, 15) were instituted for" the purpose of training young men for the prophetical and priestly offices. (See [553]PROPHET; [554]SAMUEL.) ... Read more about Schools of the Prophets...

Scorpions

Mentioned along with serpents (Deut. 8:15). Used also figuratively to denote wicked persons (Ezek. 2:6; Luke 10:19); also a particular kind of scourge or whip (1 Kings 12:11). Scorpions were a specie ... Read more about Scorpions...

Scourging

(1 Kings 12:11). Variously administered. In no case were the stripes to exceed forty (Deut. 25:3; comp. 2 Cor. 11:24). In the "time of the apostles, in consequence of the passing of what was" "called ... Read more about Scourging...

Scribes

Anciently held various important offices in the public affairs of the nation. The Hebrew word so rendered (sopher) is first used to designate the holder of some military office (Judg. "5:14; A.V., "p ... Read more about Scribes...

Scrip

A small bag or wallet usually fastened to the girdle (1 Sam. "17:40); "a shepherd's bag." "In the New Testament it is the rendering of Gr. pera, which was "a bag carried by travellers and shepherds, ... Read more about Scrip...

Scripture

Invariably in the New Testament denotes that definite collection "of sacred books, regarded as given by inspiration of God, which" "we usually call the Old Testament (2 Tim. 3:15, 16; John 20:9;" Gal ... Read more about Scripture...

Scythian

"The Scythians consisted of "all the pastoral tribes who dwelt to" "the north of the Black Sea and the Caspian, and were scattered" far away toward the east. Of this vast country but little was "anci ... Read more about Scythian...

Sea of glass

A figurative expression used in Rev. 4:6 and 15:2. According to "the interpretation of some, "this calm, glass-like sea, which is" "never in storm, but only interfused with flame, represents the" "co ... Read more about Sea of glass...

Sea of Jazer

"(Jer. 48:32), a lake, now represented by some ponds in the high" "valley in which the Ammonite city of Jazer lies, the ruins of" which are called Sar. ... Read more about Sea of Jazer...

Sea The

"(Heb. yam), signifies (1) "the gathering together of the" "waters," the ocean (Gen. 1:10); (2) a river, as the Nile (Isa." "19:5), the Euphrates (Isa. 21:1; Jer. 51:36); (3) the Red Sea" "(Ex. 14:16 ... Read more about Sea The...

Sea The molten

The great laver made by Solomon for the use of the priests in "the temple, described in 1 Kings 7:23-26; 2 Chr. 4:2-5. It stood" in the south-eastern corner of the inner court. It was 5 cubits "high, ... Read more about Sea The molten...

Seah

"In land measure, a space of 50 cubits long by 50 broad. In" "measure of capacity, a seah was a little over one peck. (See" [558]MEASURE.) ... Read more about Seah...

Seal

"Commonly a ring engraved with some device (Gen. 38:18, 25)." "Jezebel "wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his" "seal" (1 Kings 21:8). Seals are frequently mentioned in Jewish" histor ... Read more about Seal...

Seasons

(Gen. 8:22). See [560]AGRICULTURE; [561]MONTH. ... Read more about Seasons...

Seba

(1.) One of the sons of Cush (Gen. 10:7). "(2.) The name of a country and nation (Isa. 43:3; 45:14) "mentioned along with Egypt and Ethiopia, and therefore probably" in north-eastern Africa. The anci ... Read more about Seba...

Sebat

"The eleventh month of the Hebrew year, extending from the new" "moon of February to that of March (Zech. 1:7). Assyrian sabatu," storm. (See [562]MONTH.) ... Read more about Sebat...

Secacah

"Enclosure, one of the six cities in the wilderness of Judah," "noted for its "great cistern" (Josh. 15:61). It has been" "identified with the ruin Sikkeh, east of Bethany." ... Read more about Secacah...

Sechu

"A hill or watch-tower, a place between Gibeah and Ramah noted" "for its "great well" (1 Sam. 19:22); probably the modern" "Suweikeh, south of Beeroth." ... Read more about Sechu...

Sect

"(Gr. hairesis, usually rendered "heresy", Acts 24:14; 1 Chr." "11:19; Gal. 5:20, etc.), meaning properly "a choice," then "a" "chosen manner of life," and then "a religious party," as the" "sect of ... Read more about Sect...

Secundus

"Second, a Christian of Thessalonica who accompanied Paul into" Asia (Acts 20:4). ... Read more about Secundus...

Seer

A name sometimes applied to the prophets because of the visions granted to them. It is first found in 1 Sam. 9:9. It is "afterwards applied to Zadok, Gad, etc. (2 Sam. 15:27; 24:11; 1" Chr. 9:22; 25: ... Read more about Seer...

Seethe

To boil (Ex. 16:23). ... Read more about Seethe...

Seething pot

A vessel for boiling provisions in (Job 41:20; Jer. 1:13). ... Read more about Seething pot...

Segub

Elevated. (1.) The youngest son of Hiel the Bethelite. His death is recorded in 1 Kings 16:34 (comp. Josh. 6:26). "(2.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:21, 22). ... Read more about Segub...

Seir

"Rough; hairy. (1.) A Horite; one of the "dukes" of Edom (Gen." 36:20-30). "(2.) The name of a mountainous region occupied by the Edomites, extending along the eastern side of the Arabah from the "so ... Read more about Seir...

Seirath

"Woody district; shaggy, a place among the mountains of Ephraim," "bordering on Benjamin, to which Ehud fled after he had" "assassinated Eglon at Jericho (Judg. 3:26, 27)." ... Read more about Seirath...

Sela

"=Se'lah, rock, the capital of Edom, situated in the great valley" extending from the Dead Sea to the Red Sea (2 Kings 14:7). It "was near Mount Hor, close by the desert of Zin. It is called" the roc ... Read more about Sela...

Selah

"A word frequently found in the Book of Psalms, and also in Hab." "3:9, 13, about seventy-four times in all in Scripture. Its" "meaning is doubtful. Some interpret it as meaning "silence" or" "pause; ... Read more about Selah...

Selahammahlekoth

Cliff of divisions the name of the great gorge which lies "between Hachilah and Maon, south-east of Hebron. This gorge is" now called the Wady Malaky. This was the scene of the interview between Davi ... Read more about Selahammahlekoth...

Seleucia

"The sea-port of Antioch, near the mouth of the Orontes. Paul and" his companions sailed from this port on their first missionary "journey (Acts 13:4). This city was built by Seleucus Nicator," "the ... Read more about Seleucia...

Semei

Mentioned in the genealogy of our Lord (Luke 3:26). ... Read more about Semei...

Senaah

"Thorny, a place many of the inhabitants of which returned from" Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:35; Neh. 7:38). ... Read more about Senaah...

Senate

"(Acts 5:21), the "elders of Israel" who formed a component part" of the Sanhedrin. ... Read more about Senate...

Seneh

"The acacia; rock-thorn, the southern cliff in the Wady" "es-Suweinit, a valley south of Michmash, which Jonathan climbed" "with his armour-bearer (1 Sam. 14:4, 5). The rock opposite, on" "the other ... Read more about Seneh...

Senir

"=Shenir, the name given to Hermon by the Amorites (Deut. 3:9)." "It means "coat of mail" or "breastplate," and is equivalent to" "Sirion. Some interpret the word as meaning "the prominent" or" the s ... Read more about Senir...

Sennacherib

"Sin (the god) sends many brothers, son of Sargon, whom he" "succeeded on the throne of Assyria (B.C. 705), in the 23rd year" "of Hezekiah. "Like the Persian Xerxes, he was weak and" "vainglorious, c ... Read more about Sennacherib...

Seorim

"Barley, the chief of the forth priestly course (1 Chr. 24:8)." ... Read more about Seorim...

Sephar

"Numbering, (Gen. 10:30), supposed by some to be the ancient" "Himyaritic capital, "Shaphar," Zaphar, on the Indian Ocean," between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. ... Read more about Sephar...

Sepharad

"(Obad. 1:20), some locality unknown. The modern Jews think that" "Spain is meant, and hence they designate the Spanish Jews" "Sephardim, as they do the German Jews by the name" "Ashkenazim, because ... Read more about Sepharad...

Sepharvaim

"Taken by Sargon, king of Assyria (2 Kings 17:24; 18:34; 19:13;" "Isa. 37:13). It was a double city, and received the common name" "Sepharvaim, i.e., "the two Sipparas," or "the two booktowns." The S ... Read more about Sepharvaim...

Septuagint

See [568]VERSIONS. ... Read more about Septuagint...

Sepulchre

First mentioned as purchased by Abraham for Sarah from Ephron "the Hittite (Gen. 23:20). This was the "cave of the field of" "Machpelah," where also Abraham and Rebekah and Jacob and Leah" were burri ... Read more about Sepulchre...

Serah

"Abundance; princess, the daughter of Asher and grand-daughter of" "Jacob (Gen. 46:17); called also Sarah (Num. 26:46; R.V.," Serah). ... Read more about Serah...

Seraiah

"Soldier of Jehovah. (1.) The father of Joab (1 Chr. 4:13, 14)." "(2.) The grandfather of Jehu (1 Chr. 4:35). (3.) One of David's scribes or secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17). "(4.) A Netophathite (Jer. 40:8 ... Read more about Seraiah...

Seraphim

"Mentioned in Isa. 6:2, 3, 6, 7. This word means fiery ones, in" "allusion, as is supposed, to their burning love. They are" "represented as "standing" above the King as he sat upon his" "throne, rea ... Read more about Seraphim...

Sered

"Fear, one of the sons of Zebulun (Gen. 46:14)." ... Read more about Sered...

Sergeants

"Acts 16:35, 38 (R.V., "lictors"), officers who attended the" magistrates and assisted them in the execution of justice. ... Read more about Sergeants...

Sergius Paulus

"A "prudent man" (R.V., "man of understanding"), the deputy" "(R.V., "proconsul") of Cyprus (Acts 13:6-13). He became a" "convert to Christianity under Paul, who visited this island on" his first mis ... Read more about Sergius Paulus...

Sermon on the mount

After spending a night in solemn meditation and prayer in the lonely mountain-range to the west of the Lake of Galilee (Luke "6:12), on the following morning our Lord called to him his" "disciples, a ... Read more about Sermon on the mount...

Serpent

"(Heb. nahash; Gr. ophis), frequently noticed in Scripture. More" than forty species are found in Syria and Arabia. The poisonous character of the serpent is alluded to in Jacob's blessing on "Dan (G ... Read more about Serpent...

Serpent Fiery

"(LXX. "deadly," Vulg. "burning"), Num. 21:6, probably the naja" "haje of Egypt; some swift-springing, deadly snake (Isa. 14:29)." "After setting out from their encampment at Ezion-gaber, the" "Israe ... Read more about Serpent Fiery...

Serug

"Branch, the father of Nahor (Gen. 11:20-23); called Saruch in" Luke 3:35. ... Read more about Serug...

Servitor

"Occurs only in 2 Kings 4:43, Authorized Version (R.V.," "servant). The Hebrew word there rendered "servitor" is" "elsewhere rendered "minister," "servant" (Ex. 24:13; 33:11)." "Probably Gehazi, the ... Read more about Servitor...

Seth

"Appointed; a substitute, the third son of Adam and Eve (Gen." "4:25; 5:3). His mother gave him this name, "for God," said she," "hath appointed me [i.e., compensated me with] another seed" "instead ... Read more about Seth...

Sethur

"Hidden, one of the spies sent to search the Promised Land. He" was of the tribe of Asher (Num. 13:13). ... Read more about Sethur...

Seven

"This number occurs frequently in Scripture, and in such" connections as lead to the supposition that it has some typical "meaning. On the seventh day God rested, and hallowed it (Gen." "2:2, 3). The ... Read more about Seven...

Seventy weeks

"A prophetic period mentioned in Dan. 9:24, and usually" "interpreted on the "year-day" theory, i.e., reckoning each day" for a year. This period will thus represent 490 years. This is regarded as th ... Read more about Seventy weeks...

Shaalabbin

"Or Shaal'bim, a place of foxes, a town of the tribe of Dan" (Josh. 19:42; Judg. 1:35). It was one of the chief towns from which Solomon drew his supplies (1 Kings 4:9). It is probably "the modern vi ... Read more about Shaalabbin...

Shaaraim

Two gates. (1.) A city in the plain of Judah (1 Sam. 17:52); called also Sharaim (Josh. 15:36). "(2.) A town in Simeon (1 Chr. 4:31). ... Read more about Shaaraim...

Shaashgaz

"Servant of the beautiful, a chief eunuch in the second house of" the harem of king Ahasuerus (Esther 2:14). ... Read more about Shaashgaz...

Shabbethai

"Sabbath-born, a Levite who assisted in expounding the law and" investigating into the illegal marriages of the Jews (Ezra 10:15; Neh. 8:7; 11:16). ... Read more about Shabbethai...

Shaddai

"The Omnipotent, the name of God in frequent use in the Hebrew" "Scriptures, generally translated "the Almighty." ... Read more about Shaddai...

Shadow

Used in Col. 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:1 to denote the typical relation of the Jewish to the Christian dispensation. ... Read more about Shadow...

Shadrach

"Aku's command, the Chaldean name given to Hananiah, one of the" Hebrew youths whom Nebuchadnezzar carried captive to Babylon "(Dan. 1:6, 7; 3:12-30). He and his two companions refused to bow" down b ... Read more about Shadrach...

Shalem

"Perfect, a place (probably the village of Salim) some 2 miles" "east of Jacob's well. There is an abundant supply of water," which may have been the reason for Jacob's settling at this "place (Gen. ... Read more about Shalem...

Shalim Land of

"Land of foxes, a place apparently to the north-west of Jerusalem" "(1 Sam. 9:4), perhaps in the neighbourhood of Shaalabbin in Dan" (Josh. 19:42). ... Read more about Shalim Land of...

Shalisha Land of

"Probably the district of Baal-shalisha (2 Kings 4:42), lying" about 12 miles north of Lydda (1 Sam. 9:4). ... Read more about Shalisha Land of...

Shallecheth The gate of

"I.e., "the gate of casting out," hence supposed to be the refuse" "gate; one of the gates of the house of the Lord, "by the" "causeway of the going up" i.e., the causeway rising up from the" Tyropoe ... Read more about Shallecheth The gate of...

Shallum

"Retribution. (1.) The son of Jabesh, otherwise unknown. He" "conspired against Zachariah, and smote him before the people," "and slew him, and reigned in his stead" (2 Kings 15:10). He" "reigned onl ... Read more about Shallum...

Shalman

"An Assyrian king (Hos. 10:14), identified with Shalmaneser II." "(Sayce) or IV. (Lenormant), the successor of Pul on the throne" "of Assyria (B.C. 728). He made war against Hoshea, the king of" "Isr ... Read more about Shalman...

Shamgar

The Philistines from the maritime plain had made incursions into "the Hebrew upland for the purposes of plunder, when one of this" "name, the son of Anath, otherwise unknown, headed a rising for" the ... Read more about Shamgar...

Shamir

A sharp thorn. (1.) One of the sons of Michah (1 Chr. 24:24). "(2.) A town among the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:48); probably "Somerah, 2 1/2 miles north-west of Debir." "(3.) The residence of Tola ... Read more about Shamir...

Shammah

"Desert. (1.) One of the "dukes" of Edom (Gen. 36:13, 17)." "(2.) One of the sons of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:9). He is also called Shimeah (2 Sam. 13:3) and Shimma (1 Chr. 2:13). "(3.) One of David's three ... Read more about Shammah...

Shammua

Heard. (1.) One of the spies sent out by Moses to search the land (Num. 13:4). He represented the tribe of Reuben. "(2.) One of David's sons (1 Chr. 14:4; 3:5, "Shimea;" 2 Sam. 5:14). "(3.) A Levite ... Read more about Shammua...

Shaphan

"A coney, a scribe or secretary of king Josiah (2 Kings 22:3-7)." He consulted Huldah concerning the newly-discovered copy of the law which was delivered to him by Hilkiah the priest (8-14). His gran ... Read more about Shaphan...

Shaphat

Judge. (1.) One of the spies. He represented the tribe of Simeon (Num. 13:5). "(2.) The father of Elisha (1 Kings 19:16-19). "(3.) One of David's chief herdsmen (1 Chr. 27:29). ... Read more about Shaphat...

Shapher

"Brightness, one of the stations where Israel encamped in the" "wilderness (Num. 33:23, 24)." ... Read more about Shapher...

Sharaim

"Two gates (Josh. 15:36), more correctly Shaaraim (1 Sam. 17:52)," "probably Tell Zakariya and Kefr Zakariya, in the valley of Elah," 3 1/2 miles north-west of Socoh. ... Read more about Sharaim...

Sharezer

"(god) protect the king!, a son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria." "He and his brother Adrammelech murdered their father, and then" fled into the land of Armenia (2 Kings 19:37). ... Read more about Sharezer...

Sharon Saron

"A plain, a level tract extending from the Mediterranean to the" "hill country to the west of Jerusalem, about 30 miles long and" "from 8 to 15 miles broad, celebrated for its beauty and" "fertility ... Read more about Sharon Saron...

Shaveh Valley of

"Valley of the plain the ancient name of the "king's dale" "(q.v.), or Kidron, on the north side of Jerusalem (Gen. 14:17)." ... Read more about Shaveh Valley of...

ShavehKiriathaim

"Plain of Kirja-thaim where Chedorlaomer defeated the Emims, the" "original inhabitants (Gen. 14:5). Now Kureiyat, north of Dibon," in the land of Moab. ... Read more about ShavehKiriathaim...

Shavsha

"("Seraiah," 2 Sam. 8:17; "Shisha," 1 Kings 4:3), one of David's" secretaries (1 Chr. 18:16). ... Read more about Shavsha...

Shealtiel

"Asked for of God, father of Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:2, 8; Neh. 12:1)." ... Read more about Shealtiel...

Shearinghouse

"(2 Kings 10:12, 14; marg., "house of shepherds binding sheep." "R.V., "the shearing-house of the shepherds;" marg., "house of" "gathering"), some place between Samaria and Jezreel, where Jehu" "slew ... Read more about Shearinghouse...

ShearJashub

"A remnant shall escape or return (i.e., to God), a symbolical" "name which the prophet Isaiah gave to his son (Isa. 7:3)," perhaps his eldest son. ... Read more about ShearJashub...

Sheba

"An oath, seven. (1.) Heb. shebha, the son of Raamah (Gen. 10:7)," whose descendants settled with those of Dedan on the Persian Gulf. "(2.) Heb. id. A son of Joktan (Gen. 10:28), probably the founder ... Read more about Sheba...

Shebaniah

"Whom Jehovah hides, or has made grow up. (1.) A Levite appointed" to blow the trumpet before the ark of God (1 Chr. 15:24). "(2.) Another Levite (Neh. 9:4, 5). "(3.) A priest (Neh. 10:12). "(4.) A L ... Read more about Shebaniah...

Shebarim

"Breaks; ruins, a place near Ai (Josh. 7:5; R.V. marg., "the" "quarries")." ... Read more about Shebarim...

Shebna

"Tender youth, "treasurer" over the house in the reign of" "Hezekiah, i.e., comptroller or governor of the palace. On" "account of his pride he was ejected from his office, and Eliakim" was promoted ... Read more about Shebna...

Shebuel

"Captive of God. (1.) One of the descendants of Gershom, who had" charge of the temple treasures in the time of David (1 Chr. 23:16; 26:24). "(2.) One of the sons of Heman; one of those whose duty it ... Read more about Shebuel...

Shecaniah

One intimate with Jehovah. (1.) A priest to whom the tenth lot came forth when David divided the priests (1 Chr. 24:11). "(2.) One of the priests who were set "to give to their brethren "by courses" ... Read more about Shecaniah...

Shechem

Shoulder. (1.) The son of Hamor the Hivite (Gen. 33:19; 34). "(2.) A descendant of Manasseh (Num. 26:31; Josh. 17:2). "(3.) A city in Samaria (Gen. 33:18), called also Sichem (12:6), Sychem (Acts 7:1 ... Read more about Shechem...

Shechinah

"A Chaldee word meaning resting-place, not found in Scripture," but used by the later Jews to designate the visible symbol of "God's presence in the tabernacle, and afterwards in Solomon's" "temple. ... Read more about Shechinah...

Sheep

Are of different varieties. Probably the flocks of Abraham and Isaac were of the wild species found still in the mountain "regions of Persia and Kurdistan. After the Exodus, and as a" "result of inte ... Read more about Sheep...

Sheepfold

A strong fenced enclosure for the protection of the sheep gathered within it (Num. 32:24; 1 Chr. 17:7; Ps. 50:9; 78:70). "In John 10:16 the Authorized Version renders by "fold" two" "distinct Greek w ... Read more about Sheepfold...

Sheepgate

"One of the gates of Jerusalem mentioned by Nehemiah (3:1, 32;" 12:39). It was in the eastern wall of the city. ... Read more about Sheepgate...

Sheepmarket

"Occurs only in John 5:2 (marg., also R.V., "sheep-gate"). The" "word so rendered is an adjective, and it is uncertain whether" "the noun to be supplied should be "gate" or, following the" "Vulgate V ... Read more about Sheepmarket...

Shekel

"Weight, the common standard both of weight and value among the" "Hebrews. It is estimated at 220 English grains, or a little more" "than half an ounce avoirdupois. The "shekel of the sanctuary" (Ex. ... Read more about Shekel...

Shelah

"Petition. (1.) Judah's third son (Gen. 38:2, 5, 11, 14)." "(2.) A son of Arphaxad (1 Chr. 1:18). ... Read more about Shelah...

Shelemiah

Whom Jehovah repays. (1.) Ezra 10:39. (2.) The father of Hananiah (Neh. 3:30). (3.) A priest in the time of Nehemiah (13:13). (4.) Father of one of those who accused Jeremiah to Zedekiah (Jer. 37:3; ... Read more about Shelemiah...

Shem

"A name; renown, the first mentioned of the sons of Noah (Gen." 5:32; 6:10). He was probably the eldest of Noah's sons. The "words "brother of Japheth the elder" in Gen. 10:21 are more" "correctly re ... Read more about Shem...

Shema

Rumour. (1.) A Reubenite (1 Chr. 5:8). "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:13). (3.) One who stood by Ezra when he read the law (Neh. 8:4). "(4.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:26); the same as Sheba ... Read more about Shema...

Shemaah

"Rumour, a Benjamite whose sons "came to David to Ziklag" (1 Chr." 12:3). ... Read more about Shemaah...

Shemaiah

Whom Jehovah heard. (1.) A prophet in the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kings 12:22-24). "(2.) Neh. 3:29. (3.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4:37). (4.) A priest (Neh. 12:42). (5.) A Levite (1 Chr. 9:16). (6.) 1 Chr. 9 ... Read more about Shemaiah...

Shemariah

Whom Jehovah guards. (1.) One who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:5). "(2.) Ezra 10:32, 41. ... Read more about Shemariah...

Shemeber

"Soaring on high, the king of Zeboiim, who joined with the other" kings in casting off the yoke of Chedorlaomer. After having been "reconquered by him, he was rescued by Abraham (Gen. 14:2)." ... Read more about Shemeber...

Sheminith

"Eight; octave, a musical term, supposed to denote the lowest" "note sung by men's voices (1 Chr. 15:21; Ps. 6; 12, title)." ... Read more about Sheminith...

Shemiramoth

Most high name. (1.) A Levite in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 17:8). "(2.) A Levite in David's time (1 Chr. 15:18, 20). ... Read more about Shemiramoth...

Shemuel

Heard of God. (1.) The son of Ammihud. He represented Simeon in the division of the land (Num. 34:20). "(2.) Used for "Samuel" (1 Chr. 6:33, R.V.). "(3.) A prince of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chr. 7:2 ... Read more about Shemuel...

Shen

"A tooth, probably some conspicuous tooth-shaped rock or crag (1" "Sam. 7:12), a place between which and Mizpeh Samuel set up his" "Ebenezer. In the Hebrew the word has the article prefixed," the She ... Read more about Shen...

Shenir

"=Senir, (Deut. 3:9; Cant. 4:8), the name given to Mount Hermon" (q.v.) by the Sidonians. ... Read more about Shenir...

Sheol

"(Heb., "the all-demanding world" = Gr. Hades, "the unknown" "region"), the invisible world of departed souls. (See" [579]HELL.) ... Read more about Sheol...

Shepham

"A treeless place, Num. 34:10, 11: "The coast shall go down from" "Shepham to Riblah." ... Read more about Shepham...

Shephatiah

Judged of the Lord. (1.) A son of David by Abital (2 Sam. 3:4). "(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:5). (3.) A Simeonite prince in David's time (1 Chr. 27:16). (4.) One of Jehosha ... Read more about Shephatiah...

Shepherd

A word naturally of frequent occurence in Scripture. Sometimes "the word "pastor" is used instead (Jer. 2:8; 3:15; 10:21; 12:10;" 17:16). This word is used figuratively to represent the relation of r ... Read more about Shepherd...

Sherebiah

"Flame of the Lord, a priest whose name is prominent in" connection with the work carried on by Ezra and Nehemiah at "Jerusalem (Ezra 8:17, 18, 24-30; Neh. 8:7; 9:4, 5; 10:12)." ... Read more about Sherebiah...

Sheresh

"Root, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chr. 7:16)." ... Read more about Sheresh...

Sherezer

One of the messengers whom the children of the Captivity sent to "Jerusalem "to pray for them before the Lord" (Zech. 7:2)." ... Read more about Sherezer...

Sheriffs

"(Dan. 3:2), Babylonian officers." ... Read more about Sheriffs...

Sheshach

"(Jer. 25:26), supposed to be equivalent to Babel (Babylon)," according to a secret (cabalistic) mode of writing among the "Jews of unknown antiquity, which consisted in substituting the" "last lette ... Read more about Sheshach...

Sheshai

"Whitish, one of the sons of Anak (Num. 13:22). When the" Israelites obtained possession of the country the sons of Anak were expelled and slain (Josh. 15:14; Judg. 1:10). ... Read more about Sheshai...

Sheshbazzar

"O sun-god, defend the lord! (Ezra 1:8, 11), probably another" "name for Zerubbabel (q.v.), Ezra 2:2; Hag. 1:12, 14; Zech. 4:6," 10 ... Read more about Sheshbazzar...

Sheth

"Tumult. (1.) "The children of Sheth" (Num. 24:17); R.V., "the" "sons of tumult," which is probably the correct rendering, as" there is no evidence that this is a proper name here. "(2.) The antedilu ... Read more about Sheth...

Shethar

"A star, a prince at the court of Ahasuerus (Esther 1:14)." ... Read more about Shethar...

Shetharboznai

"Star of splendour, a Persian officer who vainly attempted to" "hinder the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 5:3, 6; 6:6, 13)." ... Read more about Shetharboznai...

Sheva

Heb. Shebher. (1.) The son of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:49). "(2.) Heb. Sheva', one of David's scribes (2 Sam. 20:25). ... Read more about Sheva...

Shewbread

"Ex. 25:30 (R.V. marg., "presence bread"); 1 Chr. 9:32 (marg.," "bread of ordering); Num. 4:7: called "hallowed bread" (R.V.," holy bread) in 1 Sam. 21:1-6. "This bread consisted of twelve loaves mad ... Read more about Shewbread...

Shibboleth

"River, or an ear of corn. The tribes living on the east of" "Jordan, separated from their brethren on the west by the deep" "ravines and the rapid river, gradually came to adopt peculiar" "customs, ... Read more about Shibboleth...

Shibmah

"Fragrance, a town of Reuben, east of Jordan (Num. 32:38)." ... Read more about Shibmah...

Shield

"Used in defensive warfare, varying at different times and under" "different circumstances in size, form, and material (1 Sam." "17:7; 2 Sam. 1:21; 1 Kings 10:17; 1 Chr. 12:8, 24, 34; Isa." 22:6; Eze ... Read more about Shield...

Shiggaion

"From the verb shagah, "to reel about through drink," occurs in" "the title of Ps. 7. The plural form, shigionoth, is found in" Hab. 3:1. The word denotes a lyrical poem composed under strong mental ... Read more about Shiggaion...

Shihon

"Overturning, a town of Issachar (Josh. 19:19)." ... Read more about Shihon...

Shihor

"Dark, (1 Chr. 13:5), the southwestern boundary of Canaan, the" Wady el-`Arish. (See [580]SIHOR; [581]NILE.) ... Read more about Shihor...

ShihorLibnath

"Black-white, a stream on the borders of Asher, probably the" "modern Nahr Zerka, i.e., the "crocodile brook," or "blue river"," which rises in the Carmel range and enters the Mediterranean a little ... Read more about ShihorLibnath...

Shilhim

"Aqueducts, a town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:32); called" also Sharuhen and Shaaraim (19:6). ... Read more about Shilhim...

Shiloah The waters of

#NAME? ... Read more about Shiloah The waters of...

Shiloh

"Generally understood as denoting the Messiah, "the peaceful" "one," as the word signifies (Gen. 49:10). The Vulgate Version" "translates the word, "he who is to be sent," in allusion to the" "Messia ... Read more about Shiloh...

Shilonite

"Ahijah the prophet, whose home was in Shiloh, is so designated" "(1 Kings 11:29; 15:29). The plural form occurs (1 Chr. 9:5)," "denoting the descendants of Shelah, Judah's youngest son." ... Read more about Shilonite...

Shimea

The hearing prayer. (1.) One of David's sons by Bathsheba (1 Chr. 3:5); called also Shammua (14:4). "(2.) A Levite of the family of Merari (1 Chr. 6:30). (3.) Another Levite of the family of Gershon ... Read more about Shimea...

Shimeah

(1.) One of David's brothers (2 Sam. 13:3); same as Shimea (4). "(2.) A Benjamite, a descendant of Gibeon (1 Chr. 8:32); called also Shimeam (9:38). ... Read more about Shimeah...

Shimei

"Famous. (1.) A son of Gershon, and grandson of Levi (Num. 3:18;" "1 Chr. 6:17, 29); called Shimi in Ex. 6:17." "(2.) A Benjamite of the house of Saul, who stoned and cursed David when he reached Bah ... Read more about Shimei...

Shimeon

Hearkening. Ezra 10:31. ... Read more about Shimeon...

Shimhi

"Famous, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:21)." ... Read more about Shimhi...

Shimrath

"Guardian, a Benjamite, one of Shimhi's sons (id.)." ... Read more about Shimrath...

Shimri

Watchman. (1.) A Simeonite (1 Chr. 4:37). "(2.) The father of one of the "valiant men" of David's armies (1 Chr. 11:45). "(3.) Assisted at the purification of the temple in the time of Hezekiah (2 Ch ... Read more about Shimri...

Shimrom

"Watchman, the fourth son of Issachar (Gen. 46:13; 1 Chr. 7:1;" "R.V., correctly, "Shimron")." ... Read more about Shimrom...

Shimron

"Watch-post, an ancient city of the Canaanites; with its" "villages, allotted to Zebulun (Josh. 19:15); now probably" "Semunieh, on the northern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, 5" miles west of Nazar ... Read more about Shimron...

Shimronmeron

"The same, probably, as Shimron (Josh. 12:20)." ... Read more about Shimronmeron...

Shimshai

"The shining one, or sunny, the secretary of Rehum the" "chancellor, who took part in opposing the rebuilding of the" "temple after the Captivity (Ezra 4:8, 9, 17-23)." ... Read more about Shimshai...

Shinab

"Cooling, the king of Adamah, in the valley of Siddim, who with" his confederates was conquered by Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:2). ... Read more about Shinab...

Shinar The Land of

"LXX. and Vulgate "Senaar;" in the inscriptions, "Shumir;" "probably identical with Babylonia or Southern Mesopotamia," extending almost to the Persian Gulf. Here the tower of Babel "was built (Gen. ... Read more about Shinar The Land of...

Shiphmite

"Probably the designation of Zabdi, who has charge of David's" vineyards (1 Chr. 27:27). ... Read more about Shiphmite...

Shiphrah

"Beauty, one of the Egyptian midwives (Ex. 1:15)." ... Read more about Shiphrah...

Shiphtan

"Judicial, an Ephraimite prince at the time of the division of" Canaan (Num. 34:24). ... Read more about Shiphtan...

Ships

Early used in foreign commerce by the Phoenicians (Gen. 49:13). "Moses (Deut. 28:68) and Job (9:26) make reference to them, and" "Balaam speaks of the "ships of Chittim" (Num. 24:24). Solomon" constr ... Read more about Ships...

Shishak I

#NAME? "success, and a record of his wars and conquests adorns the" "portico of what are called the "Bubastite kings" at Karnak, the" ancient Thebes. Among these conquests is a record of that of Jude ... Read more about Shishak I...

Shittahtree

"(Isa. 41:19; R.V., "acacia tree"). Shittah wood was employed in" "making the various parts of the tabernacle in the wilderness," and must therefore have been indigenous in the desert in which the Is ... Read more about Shittahtree...

Shittim

"Acacias, also called "Abel-shittim" (Num. 33:49), a plain or" valley in the land of Moab where the Israelites were encamped "after their two victories over Sihon and Og, at the close of" "their dese ... Read more about Shittim...

Shoa

"Opulent, the mountain district lying to the north-east of" "Babylonia, anciently the land of the Guti, or Kuti, the modern" Kurdistan. The plain lying between these mountains and the "Tigris was cal ... Read more about Shoa...

Shobab

Apostate. (1.) One of David's sons by Bathseheba (2 Sam. 5:14). "(2.) One of the sons of Caleb (1 Chr. 2:18), the son of Hezron. ... Read more about Shobab...

Shobach

"Poured out, the "captain of the host of Hadarezer" when he" "mustered his vassals and tributaries from beyond "the river" "Euphrates" (2 Sam. 10:15-18); called also Shophach (1 Chr." 19:16). ... Read more about Shobach...

Shobai

Captors (Ezra 2:42). ... Read more about Shobai...

Shobal

Pilgrim. (1.) The second son of Seir the Horite; one of the "Horite "dukes" (Gen. 36:20)." "(2.) One of the sons of Caleb, and a descendant of Hur (1 Chr. "2:50, 52; 4:1, 2)." ... Read more about Shobal...

Shobi

"Captor, son of Nahash of Rabbah, the Ammonite. He showed" kindness to David when he fled from Jerusalem to Mahanaim (2 Sam. 17:27). ... Read more about Shobi...

Shocho

(2 Chr. 28:18) = Shochoh (1 Sam. 17:1) = Shoco (2 Chr. 11:7). See [585]SOCOH. ... Read more about Shocho...

Shoe

"Of various forms, from the mere sandal (q.v.) to the complete" covering of the foot. The word so rendered (A.V.) in Deut. "33:25, min'al, "a bar," is derived from a root meaning "to bolt" "or "shut ... Read more about Shoe...

Shomer

"Watchman. (1.) The mother of Jehozabad, who murdered Joash (2" "Kings 12:21); called also Shimrith, a Moabitess (2 Chr. 24:26)." "(2.) A man of Asher (1 Chr. 7:32); called also Shamer (34). ... Read more about Shomer...

Shophan

"Hidden, or hollow, a town east of Jordan (Num. 32:35), built by" the children of Gad. This word should probably be joined with "the word preceding it in this passage, Atroth-Shophan, as in the" Revi ... Read more about Shophan...

Shoshannim

"Lilies, the name of some musical instrument, probably like a" "lily in shape (Ps. 45; 69, title). Some think that an instrument" of six strings is meant. ... Read more about Shoshannim...

ShoshannimEduth

"In title of Ps. 80 (R.V. marg., "lilies, a testimony"), probably" the name of the melody to which the psalm was to be sung. ... Read more about ShoshannimEduth...

Shrines Silver

Little models and medallions of the temple and image of Diana of Ephesus (Acts 19:24). The manufacture of these was a very large and profitable business. ... Read more about Shrines Silver...

Shua

Wealth. (1.) A Canaanite whose daughter was married to Judah (1 Chr. 2:3). "(2.) A daughter of Heber the Asherite (1 Chr. 7:32). ... Read more about Shua...

Shuah

Prostration; a pit. (1.) One of Abraham's sons by Keturah (Gen. 25:2; Chr. 1:32). (2.) 1 Chr. 4:11. ... Read more about Shuah...

Shual The land of

"Land of the fox, a district in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Sam." "13:17); possibly the same as Shalim (9:4), in the neighbourhood" of Shaalabbin (Josh. 19:42). ... Read more about Shual The land of...

Shuhite

"A designation of Bildad (Job 2:11), probably because he was a" descendant of Shuah. ... Read more about Shuhite...

Shulamite

"The same, as some think, with "Shunammite," from "Shunem:" "otherwise, the import of the word is uncertain (Cant. 6:13;" "R.V., "Shulammite")." ... Read more about Shulamite...

Shunammite

A person of Shunem (1 Kings 1:3; 2 Kings 4:12). The Syr. and "Arab. read "Sulamite." ... Read more about Shunammite...

Shunem

"Two resting-places, a little village in the tribe of Issachar," "to the north of Jezreel and south of Mount Gilboa (Josh. 19:18)," where the Philistines encamped when they came against Saul (1 "Sam. ... Read more about Shunem...

Shur

"An enclosure; a wall, a part, probably, of the Arabian desert," "on the north-eastern border of Egypt, giving its name to a" wilderness extending from Egypt toward Philistia (Gen. 16:7; 20:1; 25:18; ... Read more about Shur...

Shushan

"A lily, the Susa of Greek and Roman writers, once the capital of" "Elam. It lay in the uplands of Susiana, on the east of the" "Tigris, about 150 miles to the north of the head of the Persian" "Gulf ... Read more about Shushan...

ShushanEduth

"Lily of the testimony, the title of Ps. 60. (See" [586]SHOSHANNIM.) ... Read more about ShushanEduth...

Sibbecai

"The Lord sustains, one of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:29), general" of the eighth division of the army (27:11). He slew the giant "Saph in the battle of Gob (2 Sam. 21:18; R.V., "Sibbechai")." Called ... Read more about Sibbecai...

Sibmah

"Coolness; fragrance, a town in Reuben, in the territory of Moab," on the east of Jordan (Josh. 13:19); called also Shebam and "Shibmah (Num. 32:3, 38). It was famous for its vines (Isa. 16:9;" "Jer. ... Read more about Sibmah...

Sichem

"=She'chem, (q.v.), Gen. 12:6." ... Read more about Sichem...

Sickle

Of the Egyptians resembled that in modern use. The ears of corn were cut with it near the top of the straw. There was also a "sickle used for warlike purposes, more correctly, however," "called a pru ... Read more about Sickle...

Siddim Vale of

"Valley of the broad plains, "which is the salt sea" (Gen. 14:3," "8, 10), between Engedi and the cities of the plain, at the south" "end of the Dead Sea. It was "full of slime-pits" (R.V., "bitumen" ... Read more about Siddim Vale of...

Sidon

"Fishing; fishery, Gen. 10:15, 19 (A.V. marg., Tzidon; R.V.," "Zidon); Matt. 11:21, 22; Luke 6:17. (See [588]ZIDON.)" ... Read more about Sidon...

Signet

"A seal used to attest documents (Dan. 6:8-10, 12). In 6:17, this" word properly denotes a ring. The impression of a signet ring on fine clay has recently been discovered among the ruins at Nineveh. ... Read more about Signet...

Sihon

"Striking down. The whole country on the east of Jordan, from the" "Arnon to the Jabbok, was possessed by the Amorites, whose king," "Sihon, refused to permit the Israelites to pass through his" "ter ... Read more about Sihon...

Sihor

(correctly Shi'hor) black; dark the name given to the river Nile "in Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18. In Josh. 13:3 it is probably "the river" "of Egypt", i.e., the Wady el-Arish (1 Chr. 13:5), which flows" "be ... Read more about Sihor...

Silas

"Wood, a prominent member of the church at Jerusalem; also called" "Silvanus. He and Judas, surnamed Barsabas, were chosen by the" church there to accompany Paul and Barnabas on their return to Antio ... Read more about Silas...

Silk

"Heb. demeshek, "damask," silk cloth manufactured at Damascus," "Amos 3:12. A.V., "in the corner of a bed, and in Damascus in a" "couch;" R.V., "in the corner of a couch, and on the silken" "cushions ... Read more about Silk...

Silla

"A highway; a twig, only in 2 Kings 12:20. If taken as a proper" "name (as in the LXX. and other versions), the locality is" unknown. ... Read more about Silla...

Siloah The pool of

"Heb. shelah; i.e., "the dart", Neh. 3:15; with the art. shiloah," "sending, Isa. 8:6 (comp. 7:3)=Siloam (q.v.)" ... Read more about Siloah The pool of...

Siloam Pool of

Sent or sending. Here a notable miracle was wrought by our Lord in giving sight to the blind (John 9:7-11). It has been "identified with the Birket Silwan in the lower Tyropoeon valley," to the south ... Read more about Siloam Pool of...

Siloam Tower of

Mentioned only Luke 13:4. The place here spoken of is the "village now called Silwan, or Kefr Silwan, on the east of the" "valley of Kidron, and to the north-east of the pool. It stands" on the west ... Read more about Siloam Tower of...

Silver

"Used for a great variety of purposes, as may be judged from the" frequent references to it in Scripture. It first appears in "commerce in Gen. 13:2; 23:15, 16. It was largely employed for" making ve ... Read more about Silver...

Silverling

"(Isa. 7:23). Literally the words are "at a thousand of silver"," "i.e., "pieces of silver," or shekels." ... Read more about Silverling...

Simeon

Hearing. (1.) The second son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. 29:33). He was associated with Levi in the terrible act of vengeance "against Hamor and the Shechemites (34:25, 26). He was detained" "by Joseph in ... Read more about Simeon...

Simeon The tribe of

"Was "divided and scattered" according to the prediction in Gen." "49:5-7. They gradually dwindled in number, and sank into a" position of insignificance among the other tribes. They decreased in the ... Read more about Simeon The tribe of...

Simon

"The abbreviated form of Simeon. (1.) One of the twelve apostles," called the Canaanite (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18). This word "Canaanite does not mean a native of Canaan, but is derived" "from the Syria ... Read more about Simon...

Simri

"Watchman, a Levite of the family of Merari (1 Chr. 26:10)." ... Read more about Simri...

Sin

"Is "any want of conformity unto or transgression of the law of" "God" (1 John 3:4; Rom. 4:15), in the inward state and habit of" "the soul, as well as in the outward conduct of the life, whether" "b ... Read more about Sin...

Sin Wilderness of

"Lying between Elim and sinai (Ex. 16:1; comp. Num. 33:11, 12)." "This was probably the narrow plain of el-Markha, which stretches" along the eastern shore of the Red Sea for several miles toward "th ... Read more about Sin Wilderness of...

Sinai

"Of Sin (the moon god), called also Horeb, the name of the" mountain district which was reached by the Hebrews in the third month after the Exodus. Here they remained encamped for about a "whole year ... Read more about Sinai...

Sinaiticus codex

"Usually designated by the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet," is one of the most valuable of ancient MSS. of the Greek New Testament. On the occasion of a third visit to the convent of "St. Cather ... Read more about Sinaiticus codex...

Sinim The land of

"(Isa. 49:12), supposed by some to mean China, but more probably" Phoenicia (Gen. 10:17) is intended. ... Read more about Sinim The land of...

Sinite

"An inhabitant of Sin, near Arka (Gen. 10:17; 1 Chr. 1:15). (See" [593]ARKITE.) ... Read more about Sinite...

Sinoffering

"(Heb. hattath), the law of, is given in detail in Lev. 4-6:13;" "9:7-11, 22-24; 12:6-8; 15:2, 14, 25-30; 14:19, 31; Num. 6:10-14." On the day of Atonement it was made with special solemnity (Lev. "1 ... Read more about Sinoffering...

Sion

Elevated. (1.) Denotes Mount Hermon in Deut. 4:48; called Sirion "by the Sidonians, and by the Amorites Shenir (Deut. 3:9). (See" [594]HERMON.) "(2.) The Greek form of Zion (q.v.) in Matt. 21:5; John ... Read more about Sion...

Siphmoth

"Fruitful places, some unknown place in the south, where David" found friends when he fled from Saul (1 Sam. 30:28). ... Read more about Siphmoth...

Sirah

"Retiring, a well from which Joab's messenger brought back Abner" "(2 Sam. 3:26). It is now called `Ain Sarah, and is situated" "about a mile from Hebron, on the road to the north." ... Read more about Sirah...

Sirion

"A breastplate, the Sidonian name of Hermon (q.v.), Deut. 3:9;" Ps. 29:6. ... Read more about Sirion...

Sisera

"(Egypt. Ses-Ra, "servant of Ra"). (1.) The captain of Jabin's" "army (Judg. 4:2), which was routed and destroyed by the army of" Barak on the plain of Esdraelon. After all was lost he fled to the se ... Read more about Sisera...

Sitnah

"Strife, the second of the two wells dug by Isaac, whose servants" here contended with the Philistines (Gen. 26:21). It has been "identified with the modern Shutneh, in the valley of Gerar, to" "the ... Read more about Sitnah...

Sitting

The attitude generally assumed in Palestine by those who were "engaged in any kind of work. "The carpenter saws, planes, and" "hews with his hand-adze, sitting on the ground or upon the plank" "he is ... Read more about Sitting...

Sivan

"A Persian word (Assyr, sivanu, "bricks"), used after the" "Captivity as the name of the third month of the Jewish year," extending from the new moon in June to the new moon in July (Esther 8:9). ... Read more about Sivan...

Skin Coats made of

(Gen. 3:21). Skins of rams and badgers were used as a covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:5; Num. 4:8-14). ... Read more about Skin Coats made of...

Skull The place of a

See [595]GOLGOTHA. ... Read more about Skull The place of a...

Slave

"Jer. 2:14 (A.V.), but not there found in the original. In Rev." "18:13 the word "slaves" is the rendering of a Greek word meaning" bodies. The Hebrew and Greek words for slave are usually "rendered ... Read more about Slave...

Slime

"(Gen. 11:3; LXX., "asphalt;" R.V. marg., "bitumen"). The vale of" "Siddim was full of slime pits (14:10). Jochebed daubed the "ark" "of bulrushes" with slime (Ex. 2:3). (See [596]PITCH.)" ... Read more about Slime...

Sling

With a sling and a stone David smote the Philistine giant (1 "Sam. 17:40, 49). There were 700 Benjamites who were so skilled" "in its use that with the left hand they "could sling stones at a" "hair ... Read more about Sling...

Smith

The Hebrews were not permitted by the Philistines in the days of "Samuel to have a smith amongst them, lest they should make them" swords and spears (1 Sam. 13:19). Thus the Philistines sought to mak ... Read more about Smith...

Smyrna

"Myrrh, an ancient city of Ionia, on the western coast of Asia" "Minor, about 40 miles to the north of Ephesus. It is now the" "chief city of Anatolia, having a mixed population of about" "200,000, o ... Read more about Smyrna...

Snail

"(1.) Heb. homit, among the unclean creeping things (Lev. 11:30)." "This was probably the sand-lizard, of which there are many" species in the wilderness of Judea and the Sinai peninsula. "(2.) Heb. ... Read more about Snail...

Snare

"The expression (Amos 3:5), "Shall one take up a snare from the" "earth?" etc. (Authorized Version), ought to be, as in the" "Revised Version, "Shall a snare spring up from the ground?" etc." (See [5 ... Read more about Snare...

Snow

Common in Palestine in winter (Ps. 147:16). The snow on the tops of the Lebanon range is almost always within view throughout the whole year. The word is frequently used figuratively by the sacred wr ... Read more about Snow...

"(Nubian, Sabako), an Ethiopian king who brought Egypt under his" sway. He was bribed by Hoshea to help him against the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser (2 Kings 17:4). This was a return to the policy th ... Read more about So...

Soap

"(Jer. 2:22; Mal. 3:2; Heb. borith), properly a vegetable alkali," "obtained from the ashes of certain plants, particularly the" "salsola kali (saltwort), which abounds on the shores of the Dead" Sea ... Read more about Soap...

Socho

"A fence; hedge, (1 Chr. 4:18; R.V., Soco)=So'choh (1 Kings 4:10;" "R.V., Socoh), Sho'choh (1 Sam. 17:1; R.V., Socoh), Sho'co (2" "Chr. 11:7; R.V., Soco), Sho'cho (2 Chr. 28:18; R.V., Soco), a" "city ... Read more about Socho...

Sodom

"Burning; the walled, a city in the vale of Siddim (Gen. 13:10;" 14:1-16). The wickedness of its inhabitants brought down upon it "fire from heaven, by which it was destroyed (18:16-33; 19:1-29;" Deu ... Read more about Sodom...

Sodoma

"(Rom. 9:29; R.V., "Sodom"), the Greek form for Sodom." ... Read more about Sodoma...

Sodomites

Those who imitated the licentious wickedness of Sodom (Deut. "23:17; 1 Kings 14:24; Rom. 1:26, 27). Asa destroyed them "out of" "the land" (1 Kings 15:12), as did also his son Jehoshaphat" (22:46). ... Read more about Sodomites...

Solemn meeting

"(Isa. 1:13), the convocation on the eighth day of the Feast of" "Tabernacles (Lev. 23:36; Num. 29:35, R.V., "solemn assembly;" "marg., "closing festival"). It is the name given also to the" convocat ... Read more about Solemn meeting...

Solomon

"Peaceful, (Heb. Shelomoh), David's second son by Bathsheba," "i.e., the first after their legal marriage (2 Sam. 12). He was" probably born about B.C. 1035 (1 Chr. 22:5; 29:1). He succeeded "his fat ... Read more about Solomon...

Solomon Song of

"Called also, after the Vulgate, the "Canticles." It is the "song" "of songs" (1:1), as being the finest and most precious of its" "kind; the noblest song, "das Hohelied," as Luther calls it. The" "S ... Read more about Solomon Song of...

Solomons Porch

"(John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12), a colonnade, or cloister" "probably, on the eastern side of the temple. It is not mentioned" "in connection with the first temple, but Josephus mentions a" "porch, so ... Read more about Solomons Porch...

Son of God

"The plural, "sons of God," is used (Gen. 6:2, 4) to denote the" pious descendants of Seth. In Job 1:6; 38:7 this name is applied to the angels. Hosea uses the phrase (1:10) to designate the gracious ... Read more about Son of God...

Son of man

"(1.) Denotes mankind generally, with special reference to their" weakness and frailty (Job 25:6; Ps. 8:4; 144:3; 146:3; Isa. "51:12, etc.)." "(2.) It is a title frequently given to the prophet Ezeki ... Read more about Son of man...

Songs

"Of Moses (Ex. 15; Num. 21:17; Deut. 32; Rev. 15:3), Deborah" "(Judg. 5), Hannah (1 Sam. 2), David (2 Sam. 22, and Psalms)," "Mary (Luke 1:46-55), Zacharias (Luke 1:68-79), the angels (Luke" "2:13), ... Read more about Songs...

Soothsayer

One who pretends to prognosticate future events. Baalam is so "called (Josh. 13:22; Heb. kosem, a "diviner," as rendered 1 Sam." "6:2; rendered "prudent," Isa. 3:2). In Isa. 2:6 and Micah 5:12" "(Heb ... Read more about Soothsayer...

Sop

A morsel of bread (John 13:26; comp. Ruth 2:14). Our Lord took a "piece of unleavened bread, and dipping it into the broth of" "bitter herbs at the Paschal meal, gave it to Judas. (Comp. Ruth" 2:14.) ... Read more about Sop...

Sopater

"The father who saves, probably the same as Sosipater, a kinsman" "of Paul (Rom. 16:21), a Christian of the city of Berea who" accompanied Paul into Asia (Acts 20:4-6). ... Read more about Sopater...

Sorcerer

"From the Latin sortiarius, one who casts lots, or one who tells" the lot of others. (See [603]DIVINATION.) "In Dan. 2:2 it is the rendering of the Hebrew mekhashphim, i.e., "mutterers, men who profe ... Read more about Sorcerer...

Sorek

"Choice vine, the name of a valley, i.e., a torrent-bed, now the" "Wady Surar, "valley of the fertile spot," which drains the" "western Judean hills, and flowing by Makkedah and Jabneel, falls" into ... Read more about Sorek...

Sosipater

(See [604]SOPATER.) ... Read more about Sosipater...

Sosthenes

"Safe in strength, the chief ruler of the synagogue at Corinth," "who was seized and beaten by the mob in the presence of Gallio," "the Roman governor, when he refused to proceed against Paul at" the ... Read more about Sosthenes...

South

"Heb. Negeb, that arid district to the south of Palestine through" which lay the caravan route from Central Palestine to Egypt "(Gen. 12:9; 13:1, 3; 46:1-6). "The Negeb comprised a" "considerable but ... Read more about South...

Sovereignty

"Of God, his absolute right to do all things according to his own" "good pleasure (Dan. 4:25, 35; Rom. 9:15-23; 1 Tim. 6:15; Rev." 4:11). ... Read more about Sovereignty...

Spain

"Paul expresses his intention (Rom. 15:24, 28) to visit Spain." "There is, however, no evidence that he ever carried it into" "effect, although some think that he probably did so between his" first a ... Read more about Spain...

Sparrow

Mentioned among the offerings made by the very poor. Two "sparrows were sold for a farthing (Matt. 10:29), and five for" two farthings (Luke 12:6). The Hebrew word thus rendered is "tsippor, which pr ... Read more about Sparrow...

Spicery

"Heb. nechoth, identified with the Arabic naka'at, the gum" "tragacanth, obtained from the astralagus, of which there are" about twenty species found in Palestine. The tragacanth of "commerce is obta ... Read more about Spicery...

Spices

"Aromatic substances, of which several are named in Ex. 30. They" were used in the sacred anointing oil (Ex. 25:6; 35:8; 1 Chr. "9:29), and in embalming the dead (2 Chr. 16:14; Luke 23:56;" "24:1; Jo ... Read more about Spices...

Spider

The trust of the hypocrite is compared to the spider's web or house (Job 8:14). It is said of the wicked by Isaiah that they "weave the spider's web (59:5), i.e., their works and designs" "are, like ... Read more about Spider...

Spies

"When the Israelites reached Kadesh for the first time, and were" "encamped there, Moses selected twelve spies from among the" "chiefs of the divisions of the tribes, and sent them forth to" "spy the ... Read more about Spies...

Spikenard

"(Heb. nerd), a much-valued perfume (Cant. 1:12; 4:13, 14). It" "was "very precious", i.e., very costly (Mark 14:3; John 12:3," "5). It is the root of an Indian plant, the Nardostachys" "jatamansi, o ... Read more about Spikenard...

Spirit

"(Heb. ruah; Gr. pneuma), properly wind or breath. In 2 Thess." "2:8 it means "breath," and in Eccl. 8:8 the vital principle in" "man. It also denotes the rational, immortal soul by which man is" "di ... Read more about Spirit...

Spirit Holy

See HOLY [607]GHOST. ... Read more about Spirit Holy...

Sponge

Occurs only in the narrative of the crucifixion (Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; John 19:29). It is ranked as a zoophyte. It is found attached to rocks at the bottom of the sea. ... Read more about Sponge...

Spouse

"(Cant. 4:8-12; Hos. 4:13, 14) may denote either husband or wife," but in the Scriptures it denotes only the latter. ... Read more about Spouse...

Spring

"(Heb. `ain, "the bright open source, the eye of the landscape")." "To be carefully distinguished from "well" (q.v.). "Springs" mentioned in Josh. 10:40 (Heb. `ashdoth) should rather be "declivities ... Read more about Spring...

Stachys

"Spike; an ear of corn, a convert at Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom." 16:9). ... Read more about Stachys...

Stacte

"(Heb. nataph), one of the components of the perfume which was" "offered on the golden altar (Ex. 30:34; R.V. marg.," "opobalsamum). The Hebrew word is from a root meaning "to" "distil," and it has b ... Read more about Stacte...

Star Morning

A name figuratively given to Christ (Rev. 22:16; comp. 2 Pet. "1:19). When Christ promises that he will give the "morning star" "to his faithful ones, he "promises that he will give to them" "himself ... Read more about Star Morning...

Stargazers

"(Isa. 47:13), those who pretend to tell what will occur by" "looking upon the stars. The Chaldean astrologers "divined by the" "rising and setting, the motions, aspects, colour, degree of" "light, e ... Read more about Stargazers...

Stars

The eleven stars (Gen. 37:9); the seven (Amos 5:8); wandering "(Jude 1:13); seen in the east at the birth of Christ, probably" some luminous meteors miraculously formed for this specific purpose (Mat ... Read more about Stars...

Stater

"Greek word rendered "piece of money" (Matt. 17:27, A.V.; and" "shekel in R.V.). It was equal to two didrachmas ("tribute" "money," 17:24), or four drachmas, and to about 2s. 6d. of our" money. (See ... Read more about Stater...

Stealing

See [610]THEFT. ... Read more about Stealing...

Steel

"The "bow of steel" in (A.V.) 2 Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34" "is in the Revised Version "bow of brass" (Heb." "kesheth-nehushah). In Jer. 15:12 the same word is used, and is" "also rendered in t ... Read more about Steel...

Stephanas

"Crown, a member of the church at Corinth, whose family were" "among those the apostle had baptized (1 Cor. 1:16; 16:15, 17)." "He has been supposed by some to have been the "jailer of" "Philippi" (c ... Read more about Stephanas...

Stephen

"One of the seven deacons, who became a preacher of the gospel." He was the first Christian martyr. His personal character and "history are recorded in Acts 6. "He fell asleep" with a prayer" for his ... Read more about Stephen...

Stoics

"A sect of Greek philosophers at Athens, so called from the Greek" "word stoa i.e., a "porch" or "portico," where they have been" "called "the Pharisees of Greek paganism." The founder of the" "Stoic ... Read more about Stoics...

Stomacher

"(Isa. 3:24), an article of female attire, probably some sort of" girdle around the breast. ... Read more about Stomacher...

Stone

"Stones were commonly used for buildings, also as memorials of" "important events (Gen. 28:18; Josh. 24:26, 27; 1 Sam. 7:12," etc.). They were gathered out of cultivated fields (Isa. 5:2; comp. 2 Kin ... Read more about Stone...

Stones Precious

Frequently referred to (1 Kings 10:2; 2 Chr. 3:6; 9:10; Rev. 18:16; 21:19). There are about twenty different names of such stones in the Bible. They are figuratively introduced to denote "value, beau ... Read more about Stones Precious...

Stoning

A form of punishment (Lev. 20:2; 24:14; Deut. 13:10; 17:5; "22:21) prescribed for certain offences. Of Achan (Josh. 7:25)," "Naboth (1 Kings 21), Stephen (Acts 7:59), Paul (Acts 14:19; 2" Cor. 11:25) ... Read more about Stoning...

Stork

"Heb. hasidah, meaning "kindness," indicating thus the character" "of the bird, which is noted for its affection for its young. It" is in the list of birds forbidden to be eaten by the Levitical "law ... Read more about Stork...

Strain at

"Simply a misprint for "strain out" (Matt. 23:24)." ... Read more about Strain at...

Stranger

This word generally denotes a person from a foreign land residing in Palestine. Such persons enjoyed many privileges in "common with the Jews, but still were separate from them. The" relation of the ... Read more about Stranger...

Straw

Used in brick-making (Ex. 5:7-18). Used figuratively in Job 41:27; Isa. 11:7; 25:10; 65:25. ... Read more about Straw...

Stream of Egypt

"(Isa. 27:12), the Wady el-`Arish, called also "the river of" "Egypt," R.V., "brook of Egypt" (Num. 34:5; Josh. 15:4; 2 Kings" 24:7). It is the natural boundary of Egypt. Occasionally in "winter, whe ... Read more about Stream of Egypt...

Street

"The street called "Straight" at Damascus (Acts 9:11) is "a long" "broad street, running from east to west, about a mile in length," "and forming the principal thoroughfare in the city." In Oriental" ... Read more about Street...

Stripes

"As a punishment were not to exceed forty (Deut. 25:1-3), and" hence arose the custom of limiting them to thirty-nine (2 Cor. 11:24). Paul claimed the privilege of a Roman citizen in regard "to the i ... Read more about Stripes...

Subscriptions

The subscriptions to Paul's epistles are no part of the "original. In their present form they are ascribed to Euthalius," a bishop of the fifth century. Some of them are obviously incorrect. ... Read more about Subscriptions...

Suburbs

"The immediate vicinity of a city or town (Num. 35:3, 7; Ezek." 45:2). In 2 Kings 23:11 the Hebrew word there used (parvarim) "occurs nowhere else. The Revised Version renders it "precincts." The sin ... Read more about Suburbs...

Succoth

Booths. (1.) The first encampment of the Israelites after leaving Ramesses (Ex. 12:37); the civil name of Pithom (q.v.). "(2.) A city on the east of Jordan, identified with Tell Dar'ala, "a high moun ... Read more about Succoth...

Succothbenoth

"Tents of daughters, supposed to be the name of a Babylonian" "deity, the goddess Zir-banit, the wife of Merodach, worshipped" by the colonists in Samaria (2 Kings 17:30). ... Read more about Succothbenoth...

Sukkiims

"Dwellers in tents, (Vulg. and LXX., "troglodites;" i.e.," "cave-dwellers in the hills along the Red Sea). Shiskak's army," "with which he marched against Jerusalem, was composed partly of" this trib ... Read more about Sukkiims...

Sun

"(Heb. shemesh), first mentioned along with the moon as the two" great luminaries of heaven (Gen. 1:14-18). By their motions and influence they were intended to mark and divide times and seasons. The ... Read more about Sun...

Suph

"(Deut. 1:1, R.V.; marg., "some ancient versions have the Red" "Sea," as in the A.V.). Some identify it with Suphah (Num. 21:14," "marg., A.V.) as probably the name of a place. Others identify it" "w ... Read more about Suph...

Suphah

"(Num. 21:14, marg.; also R.V.), a place at the south-eastern" "corner of the Dead Sea, the Ghor es-Safieh. This name is found" "in an ode quoted from the "Book of the Wars of the Lord," probably a c ... Read more about Suphah...

Supper

The principal meal of the day among the Jews. It was partaken of in the early part of the evening (Mark 6:21; John 12:2; 1 Cor. 11:21). (See LORD'S [612]SUPPER.) ... Read more about Supper...

Surety

One who becomes responsible for another. Christ is the surety of the better covenant (Heb. 7:22). In him we have the assurance that all its provisions will be fully and faithfully carried out. Solomo ... Read more about Surety...

Susanchites

"The inhabitants of Shushan, who joined the other adversaries of" the Jews in the attempt to prevent the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 4:9). ... Read more about Susanchites...

Susanna

"Lily, with other pious women, ministered to Jesus (Luke 8:3)." ... Read more about Susanna...

Susi

"The father of Gaddi, who was one of the twelve spies (Num." 13:11). ... Read more about Susi...

Swallow

"(1.) Heb. sis (Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7), the Arabic for the swift," "which "is a regular migrant, returning in myriads every spring," and so suddenly that while one day not a swift can be seen in "the ... Read more about Swallow...

Swan

Mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Lev. 11:18; Deut. "14:16), is sometimes met with in the Jordan and the Sea of" Galilee. ... Read more about Swan...

Swelling

"Of Jordan (Jer. 12:5), literally the "pride" of Jordan (as in" "R.V.), i.e., the luxuriant thickets of tamarisks, poplars," "reeds, etc., which were the lair of lions and other beasts of" prey. The ... Read more about Swelling...

Swine

"(Heb. hazir), regarded as the most unclean and the most abhorred" "of all animals (Lev. 11:7; Isa. 65:4; 66:3, 17; Luke 15:15, 16)." "A herd of swine were drowned in the Sea of Galilee (Luke 8:32," ... Read more about Swine...

Sword

"Of the Hebrew was pointed, sometimes two-edged, was worn in a" "sheath, and suspended from the girdle (Ex. 32:27; 1 Sam. 31:4; 1" Chr. 21:27; Ps. 149:6: Prov. 5:4; Ezek. 16:40; 21:3-5). "It is a sym ... Read more about Sword...

Sycamine tree

"Mentioned only in Luke 17:6. It is rendered by Luther "mulberry" "tree" (q.v.), which is most probably the correct rendering. It" "is found of two species, the black mulberry (Morus nigra) and" "the ... Read more about Sycamine tree...

Sycamore

"More properly sycomore (Heb. shikmoth and shikmim, Gr." "sycomoros), a tree which in its general character resembles the" "fig-tree, while its leaves resemble those of the mulberry; hence" "it is ca ... Read more about Sycamore...

Sychar

"Liar or drunkard (see Isa. 28:1, 7), has been from the time of" the Crusaders usually identified with Sychem or Shechem (John "4:5). It has now, however, as the result of recent explorations," "been ... Read more about Sychar...

Sychem

See [613]SHECHEM. ... Read more about Sychem...

Syene

"Opening (Ezek. 29:10; 30:6), a town of Egypt, on the borders of" "Ethiopia, now called Assouan, on the right bank of the Nile," notable for its quarries of beautiful red granite called "syenite. It ... Read more about Syene...

Synagogue

"(Gr. sunagoge, i.e., "an assembly"), found only once in the" "Authorized Version of Ps. 74:8, where the margin of Revised" "Version has "places of assembly," which is probably correct; for" "while t ... Read more about Synagogue...

Syntyche

"Fortunate; affable, a female member of the church at Philippi," "whom Paul beseeches to be of one mind with Euodias (Phil. 4:2," 3). ... Read more about Syntyche...

Syracuse

"A city on the south-east coast of Sicily, where Paul landed and" remained three days when on his way to Rome (Acts 28:12). It was distinguished for its magnitude and splendour. It is now a small "to ... Read more about Syracuse...

Syria

"(Heb. Aram), the name in the Old Testament given to the whole" "country which lay to the north-east of Phoenicia, extending to" beyond the Euphrates and the Tigris. Mesopotamia is called (Gen. "24:1 ... Read more about Syria...

Syriac

"(2 Kings 18:26; Ezra 4:7; Dan. 2:4), more correctly rendered" "Aramaic, including both the Syriac and the Chaldee languages." "In the New Testament there are several Syriac words, such as" "Eloi, El ... Read more about Syriac...

Syrophenician

"a Greek, a Syrophenician by nation (Mark 7:26), i.e., a" Gentile born in the Phoenician part of Syria. (See [615]PHENICIA.) "When our Lord retired into the borderland of Tyre and Sidon "(Matt. 15:21 ... Read more about Syrophenician...

"T"

Taanach

"A sandy place, an ancient royal city of the Canaanites, on the "south-western border of the plain of Esdraelon, 4 miles south of" Megiddo. Its king was conquered by Joshua (12:21). It was assigned t ... Read more about Taanach...

Taanathshiloh

"Approach to Shiloh, a place on the border of Ephraim (Josh." "16:6), probably the modern T'ana, a ruin 7 miles south-east of" "Shechem, on the ridge east of the Mukhnah plain." ... Read more about Taanathshiloh...

Tabbaoth

"Impressions; rings, "the children of," returned from the" Captivity (Ezra 2:43). ... Read more about Tabbaoth...

Tabbath

"Famous, a town in the tribe of Ephraim (Judg. 7:22), to the" "south of Bethshean, near the Jordan." ... Read more about Tabbath...

Tabeal

"Goodness of God, the father of one whom the kings of Syria and" Samaria in vain attempted to place on the throne of Ahaz (Isa. 7:6). ... Read more about Tabeal...

Tabeel

"A Persian governor of Samaria, who joined others in the attempt" to prevent the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7). ... Read more about Tabeel...

Taberah

"Burning, a place in the wilderness of Paran, where the "fire of" "the Lord" consumed the murmuring Israelites (Num. 11:3; Deut." 9:22). It was also called Kibroth-hattaavah (q.v.). ... Read more about Taberah...

Tabering

"Playing on a small drum or tabret. In Nahum 2:7, where alone it" "occurs, it means beating on the breast, as players beat on the" tabret. ... Read more about Tabering...

Tabernacle

"(1.) A house or dwelling-place (Job 5:24; 18:6, etc.)." "(2.) A portable shrine (comp. Acts 19:24) containing the image "of Moloch (Amos 5:26; marg. and R.V., "Siccuth")." "(3.) The human body (2 Co ... Read more about Tabernacle...

Tabernacles Feast of

The third of the great annual festivals of the Jews (Lev. "23:33-43). It is also called the "feast of ingathering" (Ex." 23:16; Deut. 16:13). It was celebrated immediately after the "harvest, in the ... Read more about Tabernacles Feast of...

Tabitha

"(in Greek called Dorcas), gazelle, a disciple at Joppa. She was" "distinguished for her alms-deeds and good works. Peter, who was" "sent for from Lydda on the occasion of her death, prayed over" "th ... Read more about Tabitha...

Tables

"(Mark 7:4) means banqueting-couches or benches, on which the" "Jews reclined when at meals. This custom, along with the use of" "raised tables like ours, was introduced among the Jews after the" "Ca ... Read more about Tables...

Tablet

Probably a string of beads worn round the neck (Ex. 35:22; Num. "31:50). In Isa. 3:20 the Hebrew word means a perfume-box, as it" is rendered in the Revised Version. ... Read more about Tablet...

Tabor

"A height. (1.) Now Jebel et-Tur, a cone-like prominent mountain," "11 miles west of the Sea of Galilee. It is about 1,843 feet" high. The view from the summit of it is said to be singularly extensiv ... Read more about Tabor...

Tabret

"(Heb. toph), a timbrel (q.v.) or tambourine, generally played by" women (Gen. 31:27; 1 Sam. 10:5; 18:6). In Job 17:6 the word "(Heb. topheth) "tabret" should be, as in the Revised Version," "an open ... Read more about Tabret...

Tabrimon

"Good is Rimmon, the father of Benhadad, king of Syria (1 Kings" 15:18). ... Read more about Tabrimon...

Taches

Hooks or clasps by which the tabernacle curtains were connected "(Ex. 26:6, 11, 33; 35:11)." ... Read more about Taches...

Tachmonite

"=Hach'monite, a name given to Jashobeam (2 Sam. 23:8; comp. 1" Chr. 11:11). ... Read more about Tachmonite...

Tackling

"(Isa. 33:23), the ropes attached to the mast of a ship. In Acts" 27:19 this word means generally the furniture of the ship or the "gear (27:17), all that could be removed from the ship." ... Read more about Tackling...

Tadmor

"Palm, a city built by Solomon "in the wilderness" (2 Chr. 8:4)." "In 1 Kings 9:18, where the word occurs in the Authorized" "Version, the Hebrew text and the Revised Version read "Tamar," which is p ... Read more about Tadmor...

Tahapanes

"=Tahpanhes=Tehaphnehes, (called "Daphne" by the Greeks, now Tell" "Defenneh), an ancient Egyptian city, on the Tanitic branch of" "the Nile, about 16 miles from Pelusium. The Jews from Jerusalem" "f ... Read more about Tahapanes...

Tahpenes

"The wife of Pharaoh, who gave her sister in marriage to Hadad" "the Edomite (1 Kings 11:19, 20)." ... Read more about Tahpenes...

Tahtimhodshi

"The land of the newly inhabited, (2 Sam. 24:6). It is" "conjectured that, instead of this word, the reading should be," "the Hittites of Kadesh, the Hittite capital, on the Orontes." It was apparent ... Read more about Tahtimhodshi...

Tale

"(1.) Heb. tokhen, "a task," as weighed and measured out = tally," "i.e., the number told off; the full number (Ex. 5:18; see 1 Sam." "18:27; 1 Chr. 9:28). In Ezek. 45:11 rendered "measure." "(2.) He ... Read more about Tale...

Talent

"Of silver contained 3,000 shekels (Ex. 38:25, 26), and was equal" "to 94 3/7 lbs. avoirdupois. The Greek talent, however, as in the" "LXX., was only 82 1/4 lbs. It was in the form of a circular" "ma ... Read more about Talent...

Talitha cumi

"(Mark 5:41), a Syriac or Aramaic expression, meaning, "Little" "maid, arise." Peter, who was present when the miracle was" "wrought, recalled the actual words used by our Lord, and told" them to Mar ... Read more about Talitha cumi...

Talmai

"Abounding in furrows. (1.) One of the Anakim of Hebron, who were" slain by the men of Judah under Caleb (Num. 13:22; Josh. 15:14; Judg. 1:10). "(2.) A king of Geshur, to whom Absalom fled after he h ... Read more about Talmai...

Talmon

Oppressed. (1.) A Levite porter (1 Chr. 9:17; Neh. 11:19). "(2.) One whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45); probably the same as (1). ... Read more about Talmon...

Tamar

"Palm. (1.) A place mentioned by Ezekiel (47:19; 48:28), on the" "southeastern border of Palestine. Some suppose this was "Tadmor" (q.v.). "(2.) The daughter-in-law of Judah, to whose eldest son, Er, ... Read more about Tamar...

Tamarisk

"Heb. `eshel (Gen. 21:33; 1 Sam. 22:6; 31:13, in the R.V.; but in" "A.V., "grove," "tree"); Arab. asal. Seven species of this tree" "are found in Palestine. It is a "very graceful tree, with long" fe ... Read more about Tamarisk...

Tammuz

"A corruption of Dumuzi, the Accadian sun-god (the Adonis of the" "Greeks), the husband of the goddess Ishtar. In the Chaldean" "calendar there was a month set apart in honour of this god, the" "mont ... Read more about Tammuz...

Tanhumeth

"Consolation, a Netophathite; one of the captains who supported" Gedaliah (2 Kings 25:23; Jer. 40:8). ... Read more about Tanhumeth...

Tanis

"(Ezek. 30:14, marg.). See [621]ZOAN." ... Read more about Tanis...

Tappuah

Apple-region. (1.) A town in the valley or lowland of Judah; formerly a royal city of the Canaanites (Josh. 12:17; 15:34). It "is now called Tuffuh, about 12 miles west of Jerusalem." "(2.) A town on ... Read more about Tappuah...

Tarah

"Stopping; station, an encampment of the Hebrews in the" "wilderness (Num. 33:27, 28)." ... Read more about Tarah...

Tares

"The bearded darnel, mentioned only in Matt. 13:25-30. It is the" "Lolium temulentum, a species of rye-grass, the seeds of which" are a strong soporific poison. It bears the closest resemblance "to w ... Read more about Tares...

Target

"(1 Sam. 17:6, A.V., after the LXX. and Vulg.), a kind of small" "shield. The margin has "gorget," a piece of armour for the" throat. The Revised Version more correctly renders the Hebrew "word (kido ... Read more about Target...

Tarshish

"A Sanscrit or Aryan word, meaning "the sea coast." (1.) One of" "the "sons" of Javan (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chr. 1:7)." "(2.) The name of a place which first comes into notice in the days of Solomon. The que ... Read more about Tarshish...

Tarsus

The chief city of Cilicia. It was distinguished for its wealth "and for its schools of learning, in which it rivalled, nay," "excelled even Athens and Alexandria, and hence was spoken of as" no mean ... Read more about Tarsus...

Tartak

"Prince of darkness, one of the gods of the Arvites, who" colonized part of Samaria after the deportation of Israel by Shalmaneser (2 Kings 17:31). ... Read more about Tartak...

Tartan

"An Assyrian word, meaning "the commander-in-chief." (1.) One of" Sennacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:17). (2.) One of Sargon's generals (Isa. 20:1). ... Read more about Tartan...

Tatnai

"Gift, a Persian governor (Heb. pehah, i.e., "satrap;" modern" "pasha) "on this side the river", i.e., of the whole tract on" the west of the Euphrates. This Hebrew title pehah is given to governors ... Read more about Tatnai...

Taverns The three

"A place on the great "Appian Way," about 11 miles from Rome," "designed for the reception of travellers, as the name indicates." "Here Paul, on his way to Rome, was met by a band of Roman" "Christia ... Read more about Taverns The three...

Taxes

First mentioned in the command (Ex. 30:11-16) that every Jew "from twenty years and upward should pay an annual tax of "half a" "shekel for an offering to the Lord." This enactment was" faithfully ob ... Read more about Taxes...

Taxing

"(Luke 2:2; R.V., "enrolment"), "when Cyrenius was governor of" "Syria," is simply a census of the people, or an enrolment of" them with a view to their taxation. The decree for the enrolment was the ... Read more about Taxing...

Tebeth

"(Esther 2:16), a word probably of Persian origin, denoting the" cold time of the year; used by the later Jews as denoting the "tenth month of the year. Assyrian tebituv, "rain." ... Read more about Tebeth...

Teil tree

"(an old name for the lime-tree, the tilia), Isa. 6:13, the" "terebinth, or turpentine-tree, the Pistacia terebinthus of" botanists. The Hebrew word here used (elah) is rendered oak "(q.v.) in Gen. 3 ... Read more about Teil tree...

Tekel

Weighed (Dan. 5:27). ... Read more about Tekel...

Tekoa Tekoah

"Pitching of tents; fastening down, a town of Judah, about 12" "miles south of Jerusalem, and visible from the city. From this" "place Joab procured a "wise woman," who pretended to be in great" "aff ... Read more about Tekoa Tekoah...

Telabib

"Hill of corn, a place on the river Chebar, the residence of" Ezekiel (Ezek. 3:15). The site is unknown. ... Read more about Telabib...

Telaim

"Young lambs, a place at which Saul gathered his army to fight" against Amalek (1 Sam. 15:4); probably the same as Telem (2). ... Read more about Telaim...

Telassar

"Or Thelasar, (Isa. 37:12; 2 Kings 19:12), a province in the" "south-east of Assyria, probably in Babylonia. Some have" "identified it with Tel Afer, a place in Mesopotamia, some 30" miles from Sinja ... Read more about Telassar...

Telem

Oppression. (1.) A porter of the temple in the time of Ezra (10:24). "(2.) A town in the southern border of Judah (Josh. 15:24); probably the same as Telaim. ... Read more about Telem...

Telharesha

"Hill of the wood, a place in Babylon from which some captive" Jews returned to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:59; Neh. 7:61). ... Read more about Telharesha...

Telmelah

"Hill of salt, a place in Babylon from which the Jews returned" (id.). ... Read more about Telmelah...

Tema

"South; desert, one of the sons of Ishmael, and father of a tribe" so called (Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:30; Job 6:19; Isa. 21:14; Jer. "25:23) which settled at a place to which he gave his name, some" "25 ... Read more about Tema...

Teman

"Id. (1.) A grandson of Esau, one of the "dukes of Edom" (Gen." "36:11, 15, 42)." "(2.) A place in Southern Idumea, the land of "the sons of the "east," frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. It ... Read more about Teman...

Temanite

"A man of Teman, the designation of Eliphaz, one of Job's three" friends (Job 2:11; 22:1). ... Read more about Temanite...

Temeni

"One of the sons of Ashur, the father of Tekoa (1 Chr. 4:6)." ... Read more about Temeni...

Temple

"First used of the tabernacle, which is called "the temple of the" "Lord" (1 Sam. 1:9). In the New Testament the word is used" "figuratively of Christ's human body (John 2:19, 21). Believers" "are ca ... Read more about Temple...

Temple Herods

The temple erected by the exiles on their return from Babylon "had stood for about five hundred years, when Herod the Great" became king of Judea. The building had suffered considerably from natural ... Read more about Temple Herods...

Temple Solomons

"Before his death David had "with all his might" provided" materials in great abundance for the building of the temple on "the summit of Mount Moriah (1 Chr. 22:14; 29:4; 2 Chr. 3:1), on" "the east o ... Read more about Temple Solomons...

Temple the Second

"After the return from captivity, under Zerubbabel (q.v.) and the" "high priest Jeshua, arrangements were almost immediately made to" "reorganize the long-desolated kingdom. The body of pilgrims," "f ... Read more about Temple the Second...

Temptation

"(1.) Trial; a being put to the test. Thus God "tempted [Gen. 22:" "1; R.V., `did prove'] Abraham;" and afflictions are said to" "tempt, i.e., to try, men (James 1:2, 12; comp. Deut. 8:2)," "putting ... Read more about Temptation...

Tent

"(1.) Heb. `ohel (Gen. 9:21, 27). This word is used also of a" "dwelling or habitation (1 Kings 8:66; Isa. 16:5; Jer. 4:20), and" "of the temple (Ezek. 41:1). When used of the tabernacle, as in 1" "K ... Read more about Tent...

Tenth deal

"I.e., the tenth part of an ephah (as in the R.V.), equal to an" "omer or six pints. The recovered leper, to complete his" "purification, was required to bring a trespass, a sin, and a" "burnt offeri ... Read more about Tenth deal...

Terah

"The wanderer; loiterer, for some unknown reason emigrated with" his family from his native mountains in the north to the plains "of Mesopotamia. He had three sons, Haran, Nahor, and Abraham," "and o ... Read more about Terah...

Teraphim

"Givers of prosperity, idols in human shape, large or small," analogous to the images of ancestors which were revered by the Romans. In order to deceive the guards sent by Saul to seize "David, Micha ... Read more about Teraphim...

Terebinth

"(R.V. marg. of Deut. 11:30, etc.), the Pistacia terebinthus of" botanists; a tree very common in the south and east of Palestine. (See [628]OAK.) ... Read more about Terebinth...

Teresh

"Severe, a eunuch or chamberlain in the palace of Ahasuerus, who" conspired with another to murder him. The plot was detected by "Mordecai, and the conspirators were put to death (Esther 2:21;" 6:2). ... Read more about Teresh...

Tertius

"The third, a Roman Christian whom Paul employed as his" amanuensis in writing his epistle to the Romans (16:22). ... Read more about Tertius...

Tertullus

"A modification of "Tertius;" a Roman advocate, whom the Jews" employed to state their case against Paul in the presence of Felix (Acts 24:1-9). The charges he adduced against the apostle "were, "Fir ... Read more about Tertullus...

Testament

"Occurs twelve times in the New Testament (Heb. 9:15, etc.) as" "the rendering of the Gr. diatheke, which is twenty times" "rendered "covenant" in the Authorized Version, and always so in" the Revise ... Read more about Testament...

Testimony

(1.) Witness or evidence (2 Thess. 1:10). "(2.) The Scriptures, as the revelation of God's will (2 Kings "11:12; Ps. 19:7; 119:88; Isa. 8:16, 20)." "(3.) The altar raised by the Gadites and Reubenite ... Read more about Testimony...

Testimony Tabernacle of

"The tabernacle, the great glory of which was that it contained" "the testimony, i.e., the "two tables" (Ex. 38:21). The ark in" "which these tables were deposited was called the "ark of the" "testim ... Read more about Testimony Tabernacle of...

Tetrarch

Strictly the ruler over the fourth part of a province; but the word denotes a ruler of a province generally (Matt. 14:1; Luke "3:1, 19; 9:7; Acts 13:1). Herod and Phasael, the sons of" "Antipater, we ... Read more about Tetrarch...

Thaddaeus

"Breast, the name of one of the apostles (Mark 3:18), called" "Lebbaeus in Matt. 10:3, and in Luke 6:16, "Judas the brother" "of James;" while John (14:22), probably referring to the same" "person, s ... Read more about Thaddaeus...

Thahash

"A badger, a son of Nahor, Abraham's brother (Gen. 22:24)." ... Read more about Thahash...

Tharshish

(1 Kings 10:22; 22:48). See [630]TARSHISH. ... Read more about Tharshish...

Theatre

"Only mentioned in Acts 19:29, 31. The ruins of this theatre at" "Ephesus still exist, and they show that it was a magnificent" "structure, capable of accommodating some 56,700 persons. It was" "the ... Read more about Theatre...

Thebez

"Brightness, a place some 11 miles north-east of Shechem, on the" "road to Scythopolis, the modern Tabas. Abimelech led his army" "against this place, because of its participation in the" conspiracy ... Read more about Thebez...

Theft

"Punished by restitution, the proportions of which are noted in 2" "Sam. 12:6. If the thief could not pay the fine, he was to be" sold to a Hebrew master till he could pay (Ex. 22:1-4). A "night-thie ... Read more about Theft...

Theocracy

A word first used by Josephus to denote that the Jews were under the direct government of God himself. The nation was in all things subject to the will of their invisible King. All the "people were t ... Read more about Theocracy...

Theophilus

"Lover of God, a Christian, probably a Roman, to whom Luke" dedicated both his Gospel (Luke 1:3) and the Acts of the Apostles (1:1). Nothing beyond this is known of him. From the "fact that Luke appl ... Read more about Theophilus...

Thessalonians Epistles to the

The first epistle to the Thessalonians was the first of all "Paul's epistles. It was in all probability written from Corinth," "where he abode a "long time" (Acts 18:11, 18), early in the" "period of ... Read more about Thessalonians Epistles to the...

Thessalonica

A large and populous city on the Thermaic bay. It was the "capital of one of the four Roman districts of Macedonia, and was" "ruled by a praetor. It was named after Thessalonica, the wife of" "Cassan ... Read more about Thessalonica...

Theudas

"Thanksgiving, referred to by Gamaliel in his speech before the" council at Jerusalem (Acts 5:36). He headed an insurrection against the Roman authority. Beyond this nothing is known of him. ... Read more about Theudas...

Thick clay

(Hab. 2:6) is correctly rendered in the Revised Version pledges. The Chaldean power is here represented as a rapacious "usurer, accumulating the wealth that belonged to others." ... Read more about Thick clay...

Thieves The two

"(Luke 23:32, 39-43), robbers, rather brigands, probably" followers of Barabbas. Our Lord's cross was placed between those "of the "malefactors," to add to the ignominy of his position." "According t ... Read more about Thieves The two...

Thistle

(1.) Heb. hoah (2 Kings 14:9; Job 31:40). In Job 41:2 the Hebrew "word is rendered "thorn," but in the Revised Version "hook." It" "is also rendered "thorn" in 2 Chr. 33:11; Prov. 26:9; Cant. 2:2;" b ... Read more about Thistle...

Thomas

"Twin, one of the twelve (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18, etc.). He was" "also called Didymus (John 11:16; 20:24), which is the Greek" equivalent of the Hebrew name. All we know regarding him is "recorded in ... Read more about Thomas...

Thorn

"(1.) Heb. hedek (Prov. 15:19), rendered "brier" in Micah 7:4." "Some thorny plant, of the Solanum family, suitable for hedges." "This is probably the so-called "apple of Sodom," which grows" "very a ... Read more about Thorn...

Thorn in the flesh

(2 Cor. 12:7-10). Many interpretations have been given of this passage. (1.) Roman Catholic writers think that it denotes suggestions to impiety. "(2.) Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers interpret t ... Read more about Thorn in the flesh...

Thousands

"(Micah 5:2), another name for "families" or "clans" (see Num." "1:16; 10:4; Josh. 22:14, 21). Several "thousands" or "families" "made up a "tribe." ... Read more about Thousands...

Threshing

See [633]AGRICULTURE. ... Read more about Threshing...

Threshold

"(1.) Heb. miphtan, probably a projecting beam at a higher point" "than the threshold proper (1 Sam. 5:4, 5; Ezek. 9:3; 10:4, 18;" "46:2; 47:1); also rendered "door" and "door-post." "(2.) `Asuppim, ... Read more about Threshold...

Throne

"(Heb. kiss'e), a royal chair or seat of dignity (Deut. 17:18; 2" Sam. 7:13; Ps. 45:6); an elevated seat with a canopy and "hangings, which cover it. It denotes the seat of the high priest" "in 1 Sam ... Read more about Throne...

Thummim

"Perfection (LXX., "truth;" Vulg., "veritas"), Ex. 28:30; Deut." "33:8; Judg. 1:1; 20:18; 1 Sam. 14:3, 18; 23:9; 2 Sam. 21:1. What" "the "Urim and Thummim" were cannot be determined with any" certain ... Read more about Thummim...

Thunder

Often referred to in Scripture (Job 40:9; Ps. 77:18; 104:7). "James and John were called by our Lord "sons of thunder" (Mark" "3:17). In Job 39:19, instead of "thunder," as in the Authorized" "Versio ... Read more about Thunder...

Thyatira

"A city of Asia Minor, on the borders of Lydia and Mysia. Its" "modern name is Ak-hissar, i.e., "white castle." Here was one of" "the seven churches (Rev. 1:11; 2:18-28). Lydia, the seller of" "purpl ... Read more about Thyatira...

Thyine wood

Mentioned only in Rev. 18:12 among the articles which would "cease to be purchased when Babylon fell. It was called citrus," "citron wood, by the Romans. It was the Callitris quadrivalvis of" "botani ... Read more about Thyine wood...

Tiberias

"A city, the modern Tubarich, on the western shore of the Sea of" Tiberias. It is said to have been founded by Herod Antipas (A.D. "16), on the site of the ruins of an older city called Rakkath," and ... Read more about Tiberias...

Tiberias Sea of

Called also the Sea of Galilee (q.v.) and of Gennesaret. In the Old Testament it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth. John (21:1) is the only evangelist who so designates this lake. His doi ... Read more about Tiberias Sea of...

Tiberius Caesar

"I.e., as known in Roman history, Tiberius Claudius Nero, only" "mentioned in Luke 3:1. He was the stepson of Augustus, whom he" "succeeded on the throne, A.D. 14. He was noted for his vicious" and i ... Read more about Tiberius Caesar...

Tibni

"Building of Jehovah, the son of Ginath, a man of some position," whom a considerable number of the people chose as monarch. For the period of four years he contended for the throne with Omri "(1 Kin ... Read more about Tibni...

Tidal

"(in the LXX. called "Thorgal"), styled the "king of nations" (Gen. 14:1-9). Mentioned as Tudkhula on Arioch's brick (see "facing page 139). Goyyim, translated "nations," is the country" "called Guti ... Read more about Tidal...

TiglathPileser I

(not mentioned in Scripture) was the most famous of the monarchs "of the first Assyrian empire (about B.C. 1110). After his death," for two hundred years the empire fell into decay. The history of Da ... Read more about TiglathPileser I...

TiglathPileser III

"Or Tilgath-Pil-neser, the Assyrian throne-name of Pul (q.v.). He" "appears in the Assyrian records as gaining, in the fifth year of" "his reign (about B.C. 741), a victory over Azariah (= Uzziah in" ... Read more about TiglathPileser III...

Timaeus

"Defiled, the father of blind Bartimaeus (Mark 10:46)." ... Read more about Timaeus...

Timbrel

"(Heb. toph), a small drum or tambourine; a tabret (q.v.). The" antiquity of this musical instrument appears from the scriptural "allusions to it (Gen. 31:27; Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34, etc.) (See" [634 ... Read more about Timbrel...

Timnah

A portion. (1.) A town of Judah (Josh. 15:10). The Philistines took possession of it in the days of Ahaz (2 Chr. 28:18). It was about 20 miles west of Jerusalem. It has been identified with "Timnatha ... Read more about Timnah...

Timnath

"Gen. 38:12, 14. (1.) Heb. Timnathah, which is appropriately" "rendered in the Revised Version, Timnah, a town in Judah." "(2.) The town where Samson sojourned, probably identical with Timnah (1) (Ju ... Read more about Timnath...

Timnathheres

"Portion of the sun, where Joshua was buried (Judg. 2:9). It was" "in the mount of Ephraim, in the north side of the hill Gaash," 10 miles south-west of Shechem. The same as the following. ... Read more about Timnathheres...

Timnathserah

"Remaining portion, the city of Joshua in the hill country of" "Ephraim, the same as Timnath-heres (Josh. 19:50; 24:30). "Of all" "sites I have seen," says Lieut. Col. Conder, "none is so" "striking ... Read more about Timnathserah...

Timnite

A man of Timnah. Samson's father-in-law is so styled (Judg. 15:6). ... Read more about Timnite...

Timon

"Honouring, one of the seven deacons at Jerusalem (Acts 6:5)." Nothing further is known of him. ... Read more about Timon...

Timotheus

"The Greek form of the name of Timothy (Acts 16:1, etc.; the R.V." "always "Timothy")." ... Read more about Timotheus...

Timothy

"Honouring God, a young disciple who was Paul's companion in many" "of his journeyings. His mother, Eunice, and his grandmother," "Lois, are mentioned as eminent for their piety (2 Tim. 1:5). We" kno ... Read more about Timothy...

Timothy First Epistle to

Paul in this epistle speaks of himself as having left Ephesus "for Macedonia (1:3), and hence not Laodicea, as mentioned in the" "subscription; but probably Philippi, or some other city in that" "reg ... Read more about Timothy First Epistle to...

Timothy Second Epistle to

"Was probably written a year or so after the first, and from" "Rome, where Paul was for a second time a prisoner, and was sent" to Timothy by the hands of Tychicus. In it he entreats Timothy "to come ... Read more about Timothy Second Epistle to...

Tin

"Heb. bedil (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20), a metal well known in" ancient times. It is the general opinion that the Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon obtained their supplies of tin from the British Isles ... Read more about Tin...

Tinkling ornaments

"(Isa. 3:18), anklets of silver or gold, etc., such as are still" used by women in Syria and the East. ... Read more about Tinkling ornaments...

Tiphsah

"Passing over; ford, one of the boundaries of Solomon's dominions" "(1 Kings 4:24), probably "Thapsacus, a great and wealthy town on" "the western bank of the Euphrates," about 100 miles north-east" ... Read more about Tiphsah...

Tiras

The youngest of the sons of Japheth (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chr. 1:5). ... Read more about Tiras...

Tires

To tire the head is to adorn it (2 Kings 9:30). As a noun the "word is derived from "tiara," and is the rendering of the Heb." "p'er, a "turban" or an ornament for the head (Ezek. 24:17; R.V.," headt ... Read more about Tires...

Tirhakah

The last king of Egypt of the Ethiopian (the fifteenth) dynasty. He was the brother-in-law of So (q.v.). He probably ascended the "throne about B.C. 692, having been previously king of Ethiopia" "(2 ... Read more about Tirhakah...

Tirshatha

"A word probably of Persian origin, meaning "severity," denoting" a high civil dignity. The Persian governor of Judea is so called "(Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65, 70). Nehemiah is called by this name in" "Ne ... Read more about Tirshatha...

Tirza

"Pleasantness. (1.) An old royal city of the Canaanites, which" was destroyed by Joshua (Josh. 12:24). Jeroboam chose it for his "residence, and he removed to it from Shechem, which at first he" made ... Read more about Tirza...

Tishbite

"Elijah the prophet was thus named (1 Kings 17:1; 21:17, 28," "etc.). In 1 Kings 17:1 the word rendered "inhabitants" is in the" "original the same as that rendered "Tishbite," hence that verse" "may ... Read more about Tishbite...

Tisri

"The first month of the civil year, and the seventh of the" ecclesiastical year. See [635]ETHANIM (1 Kings 8:2). Called in "the Assyrian inscriptions Tasaritu, i.e. "beginning." ... Read more about Tisri...

Tithe

A tenth of the produce of the earth consecrated and set apart for special purposes. The dedication of a tenth to God was recognized as a duty before the time of Moses. Abraham paid tithes to Melchize ... Read more about Tithe...

Tittle

"A point, (Matt. 5:18; Luke 16:17), the minute point or stroke" added to some letters of the Hebrew alphabet to distinguish them "from others which they resemble; hence, the very least point." ... Read more about Tittle...

Titus

"Honourable, was with Paul and Barnabas at Antioch, and" accompanied them to the council at Jerusalem (Gal. 2:1-3; Acts "15:2), although his name nowhere occurs in the Acts of the" "Apostles. He appe ... Read more about Titus...

Titus Epistle to

Was probably written about the same time as the first epistle to "Timothy, with which it has many affinities. "Both letters were" addressed to persons left by the writer to preside in their respectiv ... Read more about Titus Epistle to...

Tob The land of

"A district on the east of Jodan, about 13 miles south-east of" "the Sea of Galilee, to which Jephthah fled from his brethren" "(Judg. 11:3, 5). It was on the northern boundary of Perea," "between Sy ... Read more about Tob The land of...

Tobadonijah

"Good is Jehovah, my Lord, a Levite sent out by Jehoshaphat to" instruct the people of Judah in the law (2 Chr. 17:8). ... Read more about Tobadonijah...

Tobiah

"Pleasing to Jehovah, the "servant," the "Ammonite," who joined" with those who opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem after the "Exile (Neh. 2:10). He was a man of great influence, which he" "exerted i ... Read more about Tobiah...

Tobijah

"Id., a Levite sent out through Judah by Jehoshaphat to teach the" people (2 Chr. 17:8). ... Read more about Tobijah...

Tochen

"Measured, a town of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:32)." ... Read more about Tochen...

Togarmah

"(1.) A son of Gomer, and grandson of Japheth (Gen. 10:3)." "(2.) A nation which traded in horses and mules at the fairs of Tyre (Ezek. 27:14; 38:6); probably an Armenian or a Scythian race; descenda ... Read more about Togarmah...

Tohu

One of Samuel's ancestors (1 Sam. 1:1). ... Read more about Tohu...

Toi

"A king of Hamath, who sent "Joram his son unto King David to" "salute him," when he "heard that David had smitten all the host" "of Hadadezer" (2 Sam. 8:9, 10). Called Tou (1 Chr. 18:9, 10)." ... Read more about Toi...

Tola

A scarlet worm. (1.) Eldest son of Issachar (Gen. 46:13). "(2.) A judge of the tribe of Issachar who "judged" Israel "twenty-three years (Judg. 10:1, 2), when he died, and was buried" in Shamir. He w ... Read more about Tola...

Tolad

"Productive, a town of Simeon, in the south of Judah (1 Chr." 4:29). ... Read more about Tolad...

Tolaites

"Descendants of Tola (Num. 26:23; 1 Chr. 7:1, 2)." ... Read more about Tolaites...

Toll

One of the branches of the king of Persia's revenues (Ezra 4:13; "7:24), probably a tax levied from those who used the bridges and" fords and highways. ... Read more about Toll...

Tombs

"Of the Hebrews were generally excavated in the solid rock, or" were natural caves. Mention is made of such tombs in Judg. 8:32; 2 Sam. 2:32; 2 Kings 9:28; 23:30. They were sometimes made in gardens ... Read more about Tombs...

Tongues Confusion of

"At Babel, the cause of the early separation of mankind and their" division into nations. The descendants of Noah built a tower to "prevent their dispersion; but God "confounded their language" "(Gen ... Read more about Tongues Confusion of...

Tongues Gift of

"Granted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4), in fulfilment of a" promise Christ had made to his disciples (Mark 16:17). What this gift actually was has been a subject of much discussion. Some have ar ... Read more about Tongues Gift of...

Tooth

One of the particulars regarding which retaliatory punishment was to be inflicted (Ex. 21:24; Lev. 24:20; Deut. 19:21). "Gnashing of teeth =rage, despair (Matt. 8:12; Acts 7:54);" "cleanness of teeth ... Read more about Tooth...

Topaz

"Heb. pitdah (Ezek. 28:13; Rev. 21:20), a golden yellow or" green stone brought from Cush or Ethiopia (Job 28:19). It was the second stone in the first row in the breastplate of the high "priest, and ... Read more about Topaz...

Tophel

"Lime, a place in the wilderness of Sinai (Deut. 1:1), now" "identified with Tafyleh or Tufileh, on the west side of the" Edomitish mountains. ... Read more about Tophel...

Tophet

"=Topheth, from Heb. toph "a drum," because the cries of children" here sacrificed by the priests of Moloch were drowned by the "noise of such an instrument; or from taph or toph, meaning "to" "burn, ... Read more about Tophet...

Torches

"On the night of his betrayal, when our Lord was in the garden of" "Gethsemane, Judas, "having received a band of men and officers" "from the chief priests and Pharisees, cometh thither with" "lanter ... Read more about Torches...

Torment

"Gr. basanos (Matt. 4:24), the "touch-stone" of justice; hence" "inquisition by torture, and then any disease which racks and" tortures the limbs. ... Read more about Torment...

Tortoise

(Heb. tsabh). Ranked among the unclean animals (Lev. 11:29). Land tortoises are common in Syria. The LXX. renders the word by "land crocodile. The word, however, more probably denotes a" "lizard, cal ... Read more about Tortoise...

Tow

(Judg. 16:9). See [639]FLAX. ... Read more about Tow...

Tower of the furnaces

"(Neh. 3:11; 12:38), a tower at the north-western angle of the" second wall of Jerusalem. It was probably so named from its "contiguity to the "bakers' street" (Jer. 37:21)." ... Read more about Tower of the furnaces...

Towers

"Of Babel (Gen. 11:4), Edar (Gen. 35:21), Penuel (Judg. 8:9, 17)," "Shechem (9:46), David (Cant. 4:4), Lebanon (7:4), Syene (Ezek." "29:10), Hananeel (Zech. 14:10), Siloam (Luke 13:4). There were" se ... Read more about Towers...

Trachonitis

"A rugged region, corresponds to the Heb. Argob (q.v.), the Greek" name of a region on the east of Jordan (Luke 3:1); one of the five Roman provinces into which that district was divided. It "was in ... Read more about Trachonitis...

Tradition

"Any kind of teaching, written or spoken, handed down from" "generation to generation. In Mark 7:3, 9, 13, Col. 2:8, this" word refers to the arbitrary interpretations of the Jews. In 2 "Thess. 2:15; ... Read more about Tradition...

Trance

"(Gr. ekstasis, from which the word "ecstasy" is derived) denotes" "the state of one who is "out of himself." Such were the trances" "of Peter and Paul, Acts 10:10; 11:5; 22:17, ecstasies, "a" "prete ... Read more about Trance...

Transfiguration the

"Of our Lord on a "high mountain apart," is described by each of" the three evangelists (Matt. 17:1-8; Mark 9:2-8; Luke 9:28-36). "The fullest account is given by Luke, who, no doubt, was" "informed ... Read more about Transfiguration the...

Treasure cities

Store cities which the Israelites built for the Egyptians (Ex. 1:11). (See [640]PITHOM.) Towns in which the treasures of the kings of Judah were kept were so designated (1 Chr. 27:25). ... Read more about Treasure cities...

Treasure houses

The houses or magazines built for the safe keeping of treasure and valuable articles of any kind (Ezra 5:17; 7:20; Neh. 10:38; Dan. 1:2). ... Read more about Treasure houses...

Treasury

(Matt. 27:6; Mark 12:41; John 8:20). It does not appear that there was a separate building so called. The name was given to "the thirteen brazen chests, called "trumpets," from the form of" the openi ... Read more about Treasury...

Tree of life

Stood also in the midst of the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:9; 3:22). Some writers have advanced the opinion that this tree had some "secret virtue, which was fitted to preserve life. Probably the" "lesson ... Read more about Tree of life...

Tree of the knowledge of good and evil

"Stood in the midst of the garden of Eden, beside the tree of" "life (Gen. 2, 3). Adam and Eve were forbidden to take of the" fruit which grew upon it. But they disobeyed the divine "injunction, and ... Read more about Tree of the knowledge of good and evil...

Trespass offering

"(Heb. `asham, "debt"), the law concerning, given in Lev." "5:14-6:7; also in Num. 5:5-8. The idea of sin as a "debt" "pervades this legislation. The asham, which was always a ram," was offered in ca ... Read more about Trespass offering...

Tribe

A collection of families descending from one ancestor. The twelve tribes of the Hebrews were the twelve collections of families which sprang from the sons of Jacob. In Matt. 24:30 the word has a wide ... Read more about Tribe...

Tribulation

Trouble or affiction of any kind (Deut. 4:30; Matt. 13:21; 2 "Cor. 7:4). In Rom. 2:9 "tribulation and anguish" are the penal" "sufferings that shall overtake the wicked. In Matt. 24:21, 29," the word ... Read more about Tribulation...

Tribute

A tax imposed by a king on his subjects (2 Sam. 20:24; 1 Kings 4:6; Rom. 13:6). In Matt. 17:24-27 the word denotes the temple "rate (the "didrachma," the "half-shekel," as rendered by the" R.V.) whic ... Read more about Tribute...

Trinity

"A word not found in Scripture, but used to express the doctrine" of the unity of God as subsisting in three distinct Persons. "This word is derived from the Gr. trias, first used by" "Theophilus (A. ... Read more about Trinity...

Troas

"A city on the coast of Mysia, in the north-west of Asia Minor," "named after ancient Troy, which was at some little distance from" "it (about 4 miles) to the north. Here Paul, on his second" "missio ... Read more about Troas...

Trogyllium

"A town on the western coast of Asia Minor, where Paul "tarried" "when on his way from Assos to Miletus, on his third missionary" journey (Acts 20:15). ... Read more about Trogyllium...

Trophimus

"A foster-child, an Ephesian who accompanied Paul during a part" of his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4; 21:29). He was with "Paul in Jerusalem, and the Jews, supposing that the apostle had" "bro ... Read more about Trophimus...

Trumpets

"Were of a great variety of forms, and were made of divers" "materials. Some were made of silver (Num. 10:2), and were used" only by the priests in announcing the approach of festivals and in giving ... Read more about Trumpets...

Trumpets Feast of

"Was celebrated at the beginning of the month Tisri, the first" month of the civil year. It received its name from the circumstances that the trumpets usually blown at the commencement of each month ... Read more about Trumpets Feast of...

Truth

"Used in various senses in Scripture. In Prov. 12:17, 19, it" "denotes that which is opposed to falsehood. In Isa. 59:14, 15," "Jer. 7:28, it means fidelity or truthfulness. The doctrine of" "Christ ... Read more about Truth...

Tryphena and Tryphosa

"Two female Christians, active workers, whom Paul salutes in his" epistle to the Romans (16:12). ... Read more about Tryphena and Tryphosa...

Tubal

(1.) The fifth son of Japheth (Gen. 10:2). "(2.) A nation, probably descended from the son of Japheth. It is "mentioned by Isaiah (66:19), along with Javan, and by Ezekiel" "(27:13), along with Meshe ... Read more about Tubal...

Tubalcain

"The son of Lamech and Zillah, "an instructor of every artificer" "in brass and iron" (Gen. 4:22; R.V., "the forger of every" "cutting instrument of brass and iron")." ... Read more about Tubalcain...

Turtle Turtledove

Its peculiar peaceful and gentle habit its often referred to in Scripture. A pair was offered in sacrifice by Mary at her purification (Luke 2:24). The pigeon and the turtle-dove were the only birds ... Read more about Turtle Turtledove...

Tychicus

"Chance, an Asiatic Christian, a "faithful minister in the Lord" "(Eph. 6:21, 22), who, with Trophimus, accompanied Paul on a part" of his journey from Macedonia to Jerusalem (Acts 20:4). He is "allu ... Read more about Tychicus...

Type

"Occurs only once in Scripture (1 Cor. 10:11, A.V. marg.). The" "Greek word tupos is rendered "print" (John 20:25), "figure" "(Acts 7:43; Rom. 5:14), "fashion" (Acts 7:44), "manner" (Acts" "23:25), " ... Read more about Type...

Tyrannus

"Prince, a Greek rhetorician, in whose "school" at Ephesus Paul" disputed daily for the space of two years with those who came to "him (Acts 19:9). Some have supposed that he was a Jew, and that" "hi ... Read more about Tyrannus...

Tyre

"A rock, now es-Sur; an ancient Phoenician city, about 23 miles," "in a direct line, north of Acre, and 20 south of Sidon. Sidon" "was the oldest Phoenician city, but Tyre had a longer and more" illu ... Read more about Tyre...

Tyropoeon Valley

"(i.e., "Valley of the Cheesemongers"), the name given by" Josephus the historian to the valley or rugged ravine which in ancient times separated Mount Moriah from Mount Zion. This "valley, now fille ... Read more about Tyropoeon Valley...

"U"

Ucal

"The name of a person to whom Agur's words are addressed (Prov. 30:1). ... Read more about Ucal...

Ulai

The Eulaus of the Greeks; a river of Susiana. It was probably "the eastern branch of the Choasper (Kerkhan), which divided into" two branches some 20 miles above the city of Susa. Hence Daniel "(8:2, ... Read more about Ulai...

Ummah

"Vicinity, a town of Asher (Josh. 19:30)." ... Read more about Ummah...

Unction

"(1 John 2:20, 27; R.V., "anointing"). Kings, prophets, and" "priests were anointed, in token of receiving divine grace. All" "believers are, in a secondary sense, what Christ was in a" "primary sens ... Read more about Unction...

Unicorn

Described as an animal of great ferocity and strength (Num. "23:22, R.V., "wild ox," marg., "ox-antelope;" 24:8; Isa. 34:7," "R.V., "wild oxen"), and untamable (Job 39:9). It was in reality" a two-ho ... Read more about Unicorn...

Unni

Afficted. (1.) A Levite whom David appointed to take part in bringing the ark up to Jerusalem from the house of Obed-edom by "playing the psaltery on that occasion (1 Chr. 15:18, 20)." "(2.) A Levite ... Read more about Unni...

Upharsin

"And they divide, one of the words written by the mysterious hand" on the wall of Belshazzar's palace (Dan. 5:25). It is a pure "Chaldean word. "Peres" is only a simple form of the same word." ... Read more about Upharsin...

Uphaz

"Probably another name for Ophir (Jer. 10:9). Some, however," "regard it as the name of an Indian colony in Yemen, southern" Arabia; others as a place on or near the river Hyphasis (now the "Ghana), ... Read more about Uphaz...

"Light, or the moon city, a city "of the Chaldees," the" "birthplace of Haran (Gen. 11:28, 31), the largest city of Shinar" "or northern Chaldea, and the principal commercial centre of the" country a ... Read more about Ur...

Uriah

"The Lord is my light. (1.) A Hittite, the husband of Bathsheba," "whom David first seduced, and then after Uriah's death married." "He was one of the band of David's "mighty men." The sad story of" ... Read more about Uriah...

Uriel

God is my light. (1.) A Levite of the family of Kohath (1 Chr. 6:24). "(2.) The chief of the Kohathites at the time when the ark was "brought up to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 15:5, 11)." "(3.) The father of M ... Read more about Uriel...

Urijah

The lord is my light. (1.) A high priest in the time of Ahaz (2 "Kings 16:10-16), at whose bidding he constructed an idolatrous" "altar like one the king had seen at Damascus, to be set up" instead o ... Read more about Urijah...

Urim

"Lights (Vulg."doctrina;" LXX. "revelation"). See [651]THUMMIM." ... Read more about Urim...

Usury

"The sum paid for the use of money, hence interest; not, as in" "the modern sense, exorbitant interest. The Jews were forbidden" "to exact usury (Lev. 25:36, 37), only, however, in their" "dealings w ... Read more about Usury...

"Fertile land. (1.) The son of Aram, and grandson of Shem (Gen." 10:23; 1 Chr. 1:17). "(2.) One of the Horite "dukes" in the land of Edom (Gen. 36:28). "(3.) The eldest son of Nahor, Abraham's brothe ... Read more about Uz...

Uz The land of

"Where Job lived (1:1; Jer. 25:20; Lam. 4:21), probably somewhere" to the east or south-east of Palestine and north of Edom. It is mentioned in Scripture only in these three passages. ... Read more about Uz The land of...

Uzal

"A wanderer, a descendant of Joktan (Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21)," the founder apparently of one of the Arab tribes; the name also probably of the province they occupied and of their chief city. ... Read more about Uzal...

Uzza

"Strengh, a garden in which Manasseh and Amon were buried (2" "Kings 21:18, 26). It was probably near the king's palace in" "Jerusalem, or may have formed part of the palace grounds." Manasseh may pr ... Read more about Uzza...

Uzzah

"Strength, a son of Abinadab, in whose house the men of" Kirjath-jearim placed the ark when it was brought back from the land of the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:1). He with his brother Ahio drove the cart ... Read more about Uzzah...

Uzzensherah

A town probably near Beth-horon. It derived its name from the daughter of Ephraim (1 Chr. 7:24). ... Read more about Uzzensherah...

Uzzi

"The Lord is my strength. (1.) The son of Bukki, and a descendant" "of Aaron (1 Chr. 6:5, 51; Ezra 7:4)." "(2.) A grandson of Issachar (1 Chr. 7:2, 3). "(3.) A son of Bela, and grandson of Benjamin ( ... Read more about Uzzi...

Uzziah

A contracted form of Azari'ah the Lord is my strength. (1.) One "of Amaziah's sons, whom the people made king of Judah in his" father's stead (2 Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 26:1). His long reign of "about fi ... Read more about Uzziah...

Uzziel

"Strength of God. (1.) One of the sons of Kohath, and uncle of" Aaron (Ex. 6:18; Lev. 10:4). "(2.) A Simeonite captain (1 Chr. 4:39-43). "(3.) A son of Bela, and grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:7). "( ... Read more about Uzziel...

"V"

Vagabond

"From Lat. vagabundus, "a wanderer," "a fugitive;" not used "opprobriously (Gen. 4:12, R.V., "wanderer;" Ps. 109:10; Acts" "19:13, R.V., "strolling")." ... Read more about Vagabond...

Vajezatha

"Purity; worthy of honour, one of Haman's sons, whom the Jews" slew in the palace of Shushan (Esther 9:9). ... Read more about Vajezatha...

Valley

"(1.) Heb. bik'ah, a "cleft" of the mountains (Deut. 8:7; 11:11;" "Ps. 104:8; Isa. 41:18); also a low plain bounded by mountains," as the plain of Lebanon at the foot of Hermon around the sources "of ... Read more about Valley...

Vashti

"Beautiful, the queen of Ahasuerus, who was deposed from her" royal dignity because she refused to obey the king when he desired her to appear in the banqueting hall of Shushan the palace (Esther 1:1 ... Read more about Vashti...

Vaticanus Codex

Is said to be the oldest extant vellum manuscript. It and the Codex Sinaiticus are the two oldest uncial manuscripts. They were probably written in the fourth century. The Vaticanus was placed in the ... Read more about Vaticanus Codex...

Veil vail

"(1.) Heb. mitpahath (Ruth 3:15; marg., "sheet" or "apron;" R.V.," "mantle). In Isa. 3:22 this word is plural, rendered "wimples;" "R.V., "shawls" i.e., wraps." "(2.) Massekah (Isa. 25:7; in Isa. 28: ... Read more about Veil vail...

Version

A translation of the holy Scriptures. This word is not found in "the Bible, nevertheless, as frequent references are made in this" "work to various ancient as well as modern versions, it is" fitting ... Read more about Version...

Villages

"(Judg. 5:7, 11). The Hebrew word thus rendered (perazon) means" "habitations in the open country, unwalled villages (Deut. 3:5; 1" "Sam. 6:18). Others, however, following the LXX. and the Vulgate" " ... Read more about Villages...

Vine

One of the most important products of Palestine. The first mention of it is in the history of Noah (Gen. 9:20). It is afterwards frequently noticed both in the Old and New "Testaments, and in the rui ... Read more about Vine...

Vine of Sodom

Referred to only in Deut. 32:32. Among the many conjectures as "to this tree, the most probable is that it is the `osher of the" "Arabs, which abounds in the region of the Dead Sea. Its fruit" "are t ... Read more about Vine of Sodom...

Vinegar

"Heb. hometz, Gr. oxos, Fr. vin aigre; i.e., "sour wine." The" "Hebrew word is rendered vinegar in Ps. 69:21, a prophecy" fulfilled in the history of the crucifixion (Matt. 27:34). This was the commo ... Read more about Vinegar...

Viol

"Heb. nebel (Isa. 5:12, R.V., "lute;" 14:11), a musical" "instrument, usually rendered "psaltery" (q.v.)" ... Read more about Viol...

Viper

"In Job 20:16, Isa. 30:6; 59:5, the Heb. word eph'eh is thus" "rendered. The Hebrew word, however, probably denotes a species" of poisonous serpents known by the Arabic name of `el ephah. "Tristram h ... Read more about Viper...

Virgin

"In a prophecy concerning our Lord, Isaiah (7:14) says, "A virgin" "[R.V. marg., `the virgin'] shall conceive, and bear a son" (comp. Luke 1:31-35). The people of the land of Zidon are thus "referred ... Read more about Virgin...

Vision

"(Luke 1:22), a vivid apparition, not a dream (comp. Luke 24:23;" Acts 26:19; 2 Cor. 12:1). ... Read more about Vision...

Vows

"Voluntary promises which, when once made, were to be kept if the" thing vowed was right. They were made under a great variety of circumstances (Gen. 28: 18-22; Lev. 7:16; Num. 30:2-13; Deut. "23:18; ... Read more about Vows...

Vulture

(1.) Heb. da'ah (Lev. 11:14). In the parallel passage (Deut. "14:13) the Hebrew word used is ra'ah, rendered "glede;" LXX.," "gups; Vulg., "milvus." A species of ravenous bird," "distinguished for it ... Read more about Vulture...

"W"

Wafers

"Thin cakes (Ex. 16:31; 29:2, 23; Lev. 2:4; 7:12; 8:26; Num. "6:15, 19) used in various offerings." ... Read more about Wafers...

Wages

Rate of (mention only in Matt. 20:2); to be punctually paid "(Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14, 15); judgements threatened against the" withholding of (Jer. 22:13; Mal. 3:5; comp. James 5:4); paid in "money ( ... Read more about Wages...

Wagon

"Heb. aghalah; so rendered in Gen. 45:19, 21, 27; 46:5; Num. 7:3," "7, 8, but elsewhere rendered "cart" (1 Sam. 6:7, etc.). This" "vehicle was used for peaceful purposes. In Ezek. 23:24, however," "i ... Read more about Wagon...

Wailingplace Jews

"A section of the western wall of the temple area, where the Jews" assemble every Friday afternoon to bewail their desolate "condition (Ps. 79:1, 4, 5). The stones in this part of the wall" "are of g ... Read more about Wailingplace Jews...

Wall

"Cities were surrounded by walls, as distinguished from "unwalled" "villages" (Ezek. 38:11; Lev. 25:29-34). They were made thick and" strong (Num. 13:28; Deut. 3:5). Among the Jews walls were built " ... Read more about Wall...

Wandering

Of the Israelites in the wilderness in consequence of their rebellious fears to enter the Promised Land (Num. 14:26-35). They wandered for forty years before they were permitted to cross the Jordan ( ... Read more about Wandering...

War

The Israelites had to take possession of the Promised Land by conquest. They had to engage in a long and bloody war before the Canaanitish tribes were finally subdued. Except in the case of "Jericho ... Read more about War...

Ward

"A prison (Gen. 40:3, 4); a watch-station (Isa. 21:8); a guard" (Neh. 13:30). ... Read more about Ward...

Wars of the Lord The Book of the

"(Num. 21:14, 15), some unknown book so called (comp. Gen." "14:14-16; Ex. 17:8-16; Num. 14:40-45; 21:1-3, 21-25, 33-35; 31." The wars here recorded might be thus designated). ... Read more about Wars of the Lord The Book of the...

Washing

"(Mark 7:1-9). The Jews, like other Orientals, used their fingers" "when taking food, and therefore washed their hands before doing" "so, for the sake of cleanliness. Here the reference is to the" "a ... Read more about Washing...

Watches

The periods into which the time between sunset and sunrise was divided. They are so called because watchmen relieved each other at each of these periods. There are frequent references in Scripture to ... Read more about Watches...

Watchings

"(2 Cor. 6:5), lit. "sleeplessnesses," the result of "manual" "labour, teaching, travelling, meditating, praying, cares, and" "the like" (Meyer's Com.)." ... Read more about Watchings...

Water of jealousy

"A phrase employed (not, however, in Scripture) to denote the" water used in the solemn ordeal prescribed by the law of Moses "(Num. 5:11-31) in cases of "jealousy." ... Read more about Water of jealousy...

Water of purification

Used in cases of ceremonial cleansings at the consecration of "the Levites (Num. 8:7). It signified, figuratively, that" purifying of the heart which must characterize the servants of God. ... Read more about Water of purification...

Water of separation

Used along with the ashes of a red heifer for the ceremonial cleansing of persons defiled by contact with a dead body (Num. 19). ... Read more about Water of separation...

Waterspouts

"(Ps. 42:7; marg. R.V., "cataracts"). If we regard this psalm as" descriptive of David's feelings when banished from Jerusalem by "the revolt of Absalom, this word may denote "waterfalls," "inasmuch ... Read more about Waterspouts...

Wave offerings

"Parts of peace-offerings were so called, because they were waved" "by the priests (Ex. 29:24, 26, 27; Lev. 7:20-34; 8:27; 9:21;" "10:14, 15, etc.), in token of a solemn special presentation to" God. ... Read more about Wave offerings...

Wax

Made by melting the combs of bees. Mentioned (Ps. 22:14; 68:2; 97:5; Micah 1:4) in illustration. ... Read more about Wax...

Wean

Among the Hebrews children (whom it was customary for the "mothers to nurse, Ex. 2:7-9; 1 Sam. 1:23; Cant. 8:1) were not" generally weaned till they were three or four years old. ... Read more about Wean...

Weasel

"(Heb. holedh), enumerated among unclean animals (Lev. 11:29)." Some think that this Hebrew word rather denotes the mole (Spalax "typhlus) common in Palestine. There is no sufficient reason," "howeve ... Read more about Weasel...

Weaving weavers

Weaving was an art practised in very early times (Ex. 35:35). The Egyptians were specially skilled in it (Isa. 19:9; Ezek. "27:7), and some have regarded them as its inventors." "In the wilderness, t ... Read more about Weaving weavers...

Week

"From the beginning, time was divided into weeks, each consisting" "of six days of working and one of rest (Gen. 2:2, 3; 7:10; 8:10," 12; 29:28). The references to this division of days becomes after ... Read more about Week...

Weeks Feast of

See [665]PENTECOST. ... Read more about Weeks Feast of...

Weights

"Reduced to English troy-weight, the Hebrew weights were: (1.)" "The gerah (Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47), a Hebrew word, meaning a" "grain or kernel, and hence a small weight. It was the twentieth" "part o ... Read more about Weights...

Well

"(Heb. beer), to be distinguished from a fountain (Heb. `ain). A" "beer was a deep shaft, bored far under the rocky surface by" "the art of man, which contained water which percolated through" the st ... Read more about Well...

Westward

"Sea-ward, i.e., toward the Mediterranean (Deut. 3:27)." ... Read more about Westward...

Whale

"The Hebrew word tan (plural, tannin) is so rendered in Job 7:12" "(A.V.; but R.V., "sea-monster"). It is rendered by "dragons" in" "Deut. 32:33; Ps. 91:13; Jer. 51:34; Ps. 74:13 (marg., "whales;" "a ... Read more about Whale...

Wheat

One of the earliest cultivated grains. It bore the Hebrew name "hittah, and was extensively cultivated in Palestine. There are" various species of wheat. That which Pharaoh saw in his dream "was the ... Read more about Wheat...

Wheel

"(Heb. galgal; rendered "wheel" in Ps. 83:13, and "a rolling" "thing" in Isa. 17:13; R.V. in both, "whirling dust"). This word" "has been supposed to mean the wild artichoke, which assumes the" "form ... Read more about Wheel...

White

A symbol of purity (2 Chr. 5:12; Ps. 51:7; Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:18; "7:14). Our Lord, at his transfiguration, appeared in raiment" "white as the light (Matt. 17:2, etc.)." ... Read more about White...

Widows

"To be treated with kindness (Ex. 22:22; Deut. 14:29; 16:11, 14;" "24:17, 19-21; 26:12; 27:19, etc.). In the New Testament the same" tender regard for them is inculcated (Acts 6:1-6; 1 Tim. 5:3-16) a ... Read more about Widows...

Wife

The ordinance of marriage was sanctioned in Paradise (Gen. 2:24; Matt. 19:4-6). Monogamy was the original law under which man "lived, but polygamy early commenced (Gen. 4:19), and continued" to preva ... Read more about Wife...

Wilderness

"(1.) Heb. midhbar, denoting not a barren desert but a district" or region suitable for pasturing sheep and cattle (Ps. 65:12; Isa. 42:11; Jer. 23:10; Joel 1:19; 2:22); an uncultivated place. "This w ... Read more about Wilderness...

Willows

"(1.) Heb. `arabim (Lev. 23:40; Job 40:22; Isa. 15:7; 44:3, 4;" "Ps. 137:1, 2). This was supposed to be the weeping willow," "called by Linnaeus Salix Babylonica, from the reference in Ps." "137. Thi ... Read more about Willows...

Wimple

"Isa. 3:22, (R.V., "shawls"), a wrap or veil. The same Hebrew" "word is rendered "vail" (R.V., "mantle") in Ruth 3:15." ... Read more about Wimple...

Window

Properly only an opening in a house for the admission of light "and air, covered with lattice-work, which might be opened or" closed (2 Kings 1:2; Acts 20:9). The spies in Jericho and Paul at Damascu ... Read more about Window...

Winds

Blowing from the four quarters of heaven (Jer. 49:36; Ezek. 37:9; Dan. 8:8; Zech. 2:6). The east wind was parching (Ezek. "17:10; 19:12), and is sometimes mentioned as simply denoting a" strong wind ... Read more about Winds...

Wine

"The common Hebrew word for wine is yayin, from a root meaning" "to boil up, "to be in a ferment." Others derive it from a root" "meaning "to tread out," and hence the juice of the grape trodden" "ou ... Read more about Wine...

Winefat

(Mark 12:1). The original word (hypolenion) so rendered occurs only here in the New Testament. It properly denotes the trough "or lake (lacus), as it was called by the Romans, into which the" juice o ... Read more about Winefat...

Winepress

"Consisted of two vats or receptacles, (1) a trough (Heb. gath," Gr. lenos) into which the grapes were thrown and where they were trodden upon and bruised (Isa. 16:10; Lam. 1:15; Joel 3:13); and "(2) ... Read more about Winepress...

Winnow

"Corn was winnowed, (1.) By being thrown up by a shovel against" the wind. As a rule this was done in the evening or during the "night, when the west wind from the sea was blowing, which was a" moder ... Read more about Winnow...

Wise men

"Mentioned in Dan. 2:12 included three classes, (1) astrologers," "(2) Chaldeans, and (3) soothsayers. The word in the original" "(hakamim) probably means "medicine men. In Chaldea medicine was" "onl ... Read more about Wise men...

Wise wisdom

"A moral rather than an intellectual quality. To be "foolish" is" to be godless (Ps. 14:1; comp. Judg. 19:23; 2 Sam. 13:13). True wisdom is a gift from God to those who ask it (Job 28:12-28; Prov. 3: ... Read more about Wise wisdom...

Witch

"Occurs only in Ex. 22:18, as the rendering of mekhashshepheh," "the feminine form of the word, meaning "enchantress" (R.V.," "sorceress), and in Deut. 18:10, as the rendering of" "mekhashshepheth, t ... Read more about Witch...

Witchcraft

(1 Sam. 15:23; 2 Kings 9:22; 2 Chr. 33:6; Micah 5:12; Nahum 3:4; Gal. 5:20). In the popular sense of the word no mention is made either of witches or of witchcraft in Scripture. "The "witch of En-dor ... Read more about Witchcraft...

Witness

More than one witness was required in criminal cases (Deut. 17:6; 19:15). They were the first to execute the sentence on the condemned (Deut. 13:9; 17:7; 1 Kings 21:13; Matt. 27:1; Acts "7:57, 58). F ... Read more about Witness...

Witness of the Spirit

"(Rom. 8:16), the consciousness of the gracious operation of the" "Spirit on the mind, "a certitude of the Spirit's presence and" "work continually asserted within us", manifested "in his" "comfortin ... Read more about Witness of the Spirit...

Wizard

"A pretender to supernatural knowledge and power, "a knowing" "one," as the original Hebrew word signifies. Such an one was" forbidden on pain of death to practise his deceptions (Lev. "19:31; 20:6, ... Read more about Wizard...

Wolf

"Heb. zeeb, frequently referred to in Scripture as an emblem of" "treachery and cruelty. Jacob's prophecy, "Benjamin shall ravin" "as a wolf" (Gen. 49:27), represents the warlike character of" that t ... Read more about Wolf...

Woman

"Was "taken out of man" (Gen. 2:23), and therefore the man has" "the preeminence. "The head of the woman is the man;" but yet" "honour is to be shown to the wife, "as unto the weaker vessel" "(1 Cor. ... Read more about Woman...

Wood

See [669]FOREST. ... Read more about Wood...

Woodoffering

(Neh. 10:34; 13:31). It would seem that in the time of Nehemiah "arrangements were made, probably on account of the comparative" "scarcity of wood, by which certain districts were required, as" "chos ... Read more about Woodoffering...

Wool

One of the first material used for making woven cloth (Lev. "13:47, 48, 52, 59; 19:19). The first-fruit of wool was to be" offered to the priests (Deut. 18:4). The law prohibiting the "wearing of a g ... Read more about Wool...

Word of God

"(Heb. 4:12, etc.). The Bible so called because the writers of" its several books were God's organs in communicating his will to "men. It is his "word," because he speaks to us in its sacred" pages. ... Read more about Word of God...

Word The

"(Gr. Logos), one of the titles of our Lord, found only in the" "writings of John (John 1:1-14; 1 John 1:1; Rev. 19:13). As such," Christ is the revealer of God. His office is to make God known. "No ... Read more about Word The...

Works Covenant of

Entered into by God with Adam as the representative of the human "race (comp. Gen. 9:11, 12; 17:1-21), so styled because perfect" "obedience was its condition, thus distinguishing it from the" covena ... Read more about Works Covenant of...

Works Good

"The old objection against the doctrine of salvation by grace," "that it does away with the necessity of good works, and lowers" "the sense of their importance (Rom. 6), although it has been" "answer ... Read more about Works Good...

Worm

"(1.) Heb. sas (Isa. 51:8), denotes the caterpillar of the" clothes-moth. "(2.) The manna bred worms (tola'im), but on the Sabbath there "was not any worm (rimmah) therein (Ex. 16:20, 24). Here these ... Read more about Worm...

Wormwood

"Heb. la'anah, the Artemisia absinthium of botanists. It is noted" for its intense bitterness (Deut. 29:18; Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9:15; "Amos 5:7). It is a type of bitterness, affliction, remorse," punitiv ... Read more about Wormwood...

Worship

Homage rendered to God which it is sinful (idolatry) to render to any created being (Ex. 34:14; Isa. 2:8). Such worship was "refused by Peter (Acts 10:25, 26) and by an angel (Rev. 22:8," 9). ... Read more about Worship...

Worshipper

(Gr. neocoros = temple-sweeper (Acts 19:35) of the great goddess Diana). This name neocoros appears on most of the extant Ephesian coins ... Read more about Worshipper...

Wrestle

(Eph. 6:12). See [673]GAMES. ... Read more about Wrestle...

Writing

The art of writing must have been known in the time of the early "Pharaohs. Moses is commanded "to write for a memorial in a book" (Ex. 17:14) a record of the attack of Amalek. Frequent mention "is a ... Read more about Writing...

"X"

Xerxes - King of Persia in the Days of Danil and

"Y"

Yarn

"Found only in 1 Kings 10:28, 2 Chr. 1:16. The Heb. word mikveh, "i.e., "a stringing together," so rendered, rather signifies a" "host, or company, or a string of horses. The Authorized Version" "has ... Read more about Yarn...

Year

"Heb. shanah, meaning "repetition" or "revolution" (Gen. 1:14;" 5:3). Among the ancient Egyptians the year consisted of twelve "months of thirty days each, with five days added to make it a" complete ... Read more about Year...

Yeshebi

"The Hebrew word rendered "inhabitants" in Josh. 17:7, but" "probably rather the name of the village Yeshepheh, probably" "Yassuf, 8 miles south of Shechem." ... Read more about Yeshebi...

Yoke

(1.) Fitted on the neck of oxen for the purpose of binding to "them the traces by which they might draw the plough, etc. (Num." 19:2; Deut. 21:3). It was a curved piece of wood called 'ol. "(2.) In J ... Read more about Yoke...

Yokefellow

"(Phil. 4:3), one of the apostle's fellow-labourers. Some have" conjectured that Epaphroditus is meant. Wyckliffe renders the "phrase "the german felowe", i.e., "thee, germane [=genuine]" "comrade." ... Read more about Yokefellow...

"Z"

Zaanaim

"Wanderings; the unloading of tents, so called probably from the fact of nomads in tents encamping amid the cities and villages "of that region, a place in the north-west of Lake Merom, near" "Kedesh ... Read more about Zaanaim...

Zaanan

"Place of flocks, mentioned only in Micah 1:11. It may be" "identified with Zenan, in the plain country of Judah (Josh." 15:37). ... Read more about Zaanan...

Zaanannim

Similar to Zaanaim, (Josh. 19:33) ... Read more about Zaanannim...

Zaavan

"Terror, one of the "dukes of Edom" (Gen. 36:27); called also" Zavan (1 Chr. 1:42). ... Read more about Zaavan...

Zabad

"Gift. (1.) One of David's valiant men (1 Chr. 11:41), the" "descendant of Ahlai, of the "children of Sheshan" (2:31)." "(2.) A descendant of Tahath (7:21). "(3.) The son of Shemath. He conspired aga ... Read more about Zabad...

Zabbai

Wanderer; pure. (1.) Ezra 10:28. "(2.) The father of Baruch, who "earnestly repaired" part of the "wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:20; marg., "Zaccai")." ... Read more about Zabbai...

Zabbud

"Gift, Ezra 8:14." ... Read more about Zabbud...

Zabdi

"Gift of Jehovah. (1.) An ancestor of Achan (Josh. 7:1, 17, 18)." "He is probably the "Zimri" of 1 Chr. 2:6." "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:19). "(3.) Called "the Shiphmite," one of David's officers, w ... Read more about Zabdi...

Zabdiel

"Gift of God. (1.) The father of Jashobeam, who was one of" David's officers (1 Chr. 27:2). "(2.) An overseer of the priests after the Captivity (Neh. 11:14). ... Read more about Zabdiel...

Zabud

"Gift, the son of Nathan, who was "king's friend" in the court of" Solomon (1 Kings 4:5). ... Read more about Zabud...

Zabulon

"(Matt. 4:13, 15; Rev. 7:8). See [676]ZEBULUN." ... Read more about Zabulon...

Zaccai

"Pure, one whose "sons" returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem" (Ezra 2:9; Neh. 7:14). (See [677]ZABBAI.) ... Read more about Zaccai...

Zacchaeus

"Pure, a superintendant of customs; a chief tax-gather" "(publicanus) at Jericho (Luke 19:1-10). "The collection of" "customs at Jericho, which at this time produced and exported a" "considerable qua ... Read more about Zacchaeus...

Zaccur

"Mindful. (1.) Father of Shammua, who was one of the spies sent" out by Moses (Num. 13:4). "(2.) A Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 24:27). "(3.) A son of Asaph, and chief of one of the courses of singers "as ... Read more about Zaccur...

Zachariah

"Remembered by the Lord. (1.) Son of Jeroboam II., king of" Israel. On the death of his father there was an interregnum of "ten years, at the end of which he succeeded to the throne, which" "he occup ... Read more about Zachariah...

Zacharias

"(1.) A priest of the course of Abia, the eighth of the" twenty-four courses into which the priests had been originally divided by David (1 Chr. 23:1-19). Only four of these courses or families of th ... Read more about Zacharias...

Zacher

"Memorial, a son of Jehiel (1 Chr. 8:31; 9:35); called Zechariah" (9:37). ... Read more about Zacher...

Zadok

"Righteous. (1.) A son of Ahitub, of the line of Eleazer (2 Sam." "8:17; 1 Chr. 24:3), high priest in the time of David (2 Sam." 20:25) and Solomon (1 Kings 4:4). He is first mentioned as "coming to ... Read more about Zadok...

Zair

"Little, a place probably east of the Dead Sea, where Joram" discomfited the host of Edom who had revolted from him (2 Kings 8:21). ... Read more about Zair...

Zalmon

"Shady. (1.) One of David's warriors, called the Ahohite (2 Sam." 23:28); called also Ilai (1 Chr. 11:29). "(2.) A wood near Shechem, from which Abimelech and his party "brought boughs and "put them ... Read more about Zalmon...

Zalmonah

"Shady, one of the stations of the Israelites in the wilderness" "(Num. 33:41, 42)." ... Read more about Zalmonah...

Zalmunna

"One of the two kings of Midian whom the "Lord delivered" into" the hands of Gideon. He was slain afterwards with Zebah (Judg. 8:5-21). (See [680]ZEBAH.) ... Read more about Zalmunna...

Zamzummims

"A race of giants; "a people great, and many, and tall, as the" "Anakims" (Deut. 2:20, 21). They were overcome by the Ammonites," "who called them Zamzummims. They belonged to the Rephaim, and" inhab ... Read more about Zamzummims...

Zanoah

"Marsh. (1.) A town in the low country or shephelah of Judah," near Zorah (Josh. 15:34). It was re-occupied after the return "from the Captivity (Neh. 11:30). Zanu'ah in Wady Ismail, 10" "miles west ... Read more about Zanoah...

Zaphnathpaaneah

The name which Pharaoh gave to Joseph when he raised him to the rank of prime minister or grand vizier of the kingdom (Gen. "41:45). This is a pure Egyptian word, and has been variously" "explained. ... Read more about Zaphnathpaaneah...

Zarephath

"Smelting-shop, "a workshop for the refining and smelting of" "metals", a small Phoenician town, now Surafend, about a mile" "from the coast, almost midway on the road between Tyre and" "Sidon. Here ... Read more about Zarephath...

Zaretan

"When the Hebrews crossed the Jordan, as soon as the feet of the" "priests were dipped in the water, the flow of the stream was" "arrested. The point of arrest was the "city of Adam beside" "Zaretan, ... Read more about Zaretan...

Zarethshahar

"The splendour of the dawn, a city "in the mount of the valley" "(Josh. 13:19). It is identified with the ruins of Zara, near the" "mouth of the Wady Zerka Main, on the eastern shore of the Dead" "Se ... Read more about Zarethshahar...

Zarthan

"A place near Succoth, in the plain of the Jordan, "in the clay" "ground," near which Hiram cast the brazen utensils for the" temple (1 Kings 7:46); probably the same as Zartan. It is also called Zer ... Read more about Zarthan...

Zatthu

"A sprout, Neh. 10:14." ... Read more about Zatthu...

Zattu

"Id., one whose descendants returned from the Captivity with" Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:8; Neh. 7:13); probably the same as Zatthu. ... Read more about Zattu...

Zaza

"Plenty, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:33)." ... Read more about Zaza...

Zeal

An earnest temper; may be enlightened (Num. 25:11-13; 2 Cor. "7:11; 9:2), or ignorant and misdirected (Rom. 10:2; Phil. 3:6)." "As a Christian grace, it must be grounded on right principles" and dire ... Read more about Zeal...

Zealots

A sect of Jews which originated with Judas the Gaulonite (Acts "5:37). They refused to pay tribute to the Romans, on the ground" that this was a violation of the principle that God was the only "king ... Read more about Zealots...

Zebadiah

"Gift of Jehovah. (1.) A son of Asahel, Joab's brother (1 Chr." 27:7). "(2.) A Levite who took part as one of the teachers in the system "of national education instituted by Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 17:7, ... Read more about Zebadiah...

Zebah

"Man-killer, or sacrifice, one of the two kings who led the vast" "host of the Midianites who invaded the land of Israel, and over" whom Gideon gained a great and decisive victory (Judg. 8). Zebah an ... Read more about Zebah...

Zebaim

"(Ezra 2:57; Neh. 7:59). "Pochereth of Zebaim" should be read as" "in the Revised Version, "Pochereth-hazzebaim" ("snaring the" "antelopes"), probably the name of some hunter." ... Read more about Zebaim...

Zebedee

"A Galilean fisherman, the husband of Salome (q.v.), and the" "father of James and John, two of our Lord's disciples (Matt." 4:21; 27:56; Mark 15:40). He seems to have been a man of some "position in ... Read more about Zebedee...

Zeboim

"Gazelles or roes. (1.) One of the "five cities of the plain" of" "Sodom, generally coupled with Admah (Gen. 10:19; 14:2; Deut." "29:23; Hos. 11:8). It had a king of its own (Shemeber), and was" ther ... Read more about Zeboim...

Zebudah

"Given, the wife of Josiah and mother of Jehoiakim (2 Kings" 23:36). ... Read more about Zebudah...

Zebul

"Habitation, the governor of Shechem under Abimelech (Judg. 9:28," "30, 36). He informed his master of the intention of the people" of Shechem to transfer their allegiance to the Hivite tribe of "Ham ... Read more about Zebul...

Zebulonite

"The designation of Elon, the judge who belonged to the tribe of" "Zebulun (Judg. 12:11, 12)." ... Read more about Zebulonite...

Zebulun

"Dwelling, the sixth and youngest son of Jacob and Leah (Gen." 30:20). Little is known of his personal history. He had three sons (46:14). ... Read more about Zebulun...

Zebulun Lot of

"In Galilee, to the north of Issachar and south of Asher and" "Naphtali (Josh. 19:10-16), and between the Sea of Galilee and" the Mediterranean. According to ancient prophecy this part of Galilee enj ... Read more about Zebulun Lot of...

Zebulun Tribe of

Numbered at Sinai (Num. 1:31) and before entering Canaan (26:27). It was one of the tribes which did not drive out the "Canaanites, but only made them tributary (Judg. 1:30). It took" "little interes ... Read more about Zebulun Tribe of...

Zechariah

"Jehovah is renowned or remembered. (1.) A prophet of Judah, the" "eleventh of the twelve minor prophets. Like Ezekiel, he was of" "priestly extraction. He describes himself (1:1) as "the son of" "Be ... Read more about Zechariah...

Zedad

"Side; sloping place, a town in the north of Palestine, near" Hamath (Num. 34:8; Ezek. 47:15). It has been identified with the "ruins of Sudud, between Emesa (Hums) and Baalbec, but that is" uncertai ... Read more about Zedad...

Zedekiah

Righteousness of Jehovah. (1.) The last king of Judah. He was "the third son of Josiah, and his mother's name was Hamutal, the" "daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, and hence he was the brother of" "Jeho ... Read more about Zedekiah...

Zeeb

"The wolf, one of the two leaders of the great Midianite host" which invaded Israel and was utterly routed by Gideon. The "division of that host, which attempted to escape across the" "Jordan, under ... Read more about Zeeb...

Zelah

"Slope; side, a town in Benjamin, where Saul and his son Jonathan" were buried (2 Sam. 21:14). It was probably Saul's birthplace. ... Read more about Zelah...

Zelek

"Cleft, an Ammonite; one of David's valiant men (2 Sam. 23:37)." ... Read more about Zelek...

Zelophehad

"First-born, of the tribe of Manasseh, and of the family of" "Gilead; died in the wilderness. Having left no sons, his" "daughters, concerned lest their father's name should be "done" "away from amon ... Read more about Zelophehad...

Zelotes

(Luke 6:15). See [683]SIMON; [684]ZEALOTS. ... Read more about Zelotes...

Zemaraim

"(1.) A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18:22); now the ruin, rather two" "ruins, es-Sumrah, 4 miles north of Jericho." "(2.) A mount in the highlands of Ephraim, to the north of Jerusalem (2 Chr. 13:4-20). ... Read more about Zemaraim...

Zemarite

The designation of one of the Phoenician tribes (Gen. 10:18) who "inhabited the town of Sumra, at the western base of the Lebanon" "range. In the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400) Zemar, or Zumur, was" "one ... Read more about Zemarite...

Zemira

"Vine-dresser, a Benjamite; one of the sons of Becher (1 Chr." 7:8). ... Read more about Zemira...

Zenas

"A disciple called "the lawyer," whom Paul wished Titus to bring" with him (Titus 3:13). Nothing more is known of him. ... Read more about Zenas...

Zephaniah

"Jehovah has concealed, or Jehovah of darkness. (1.) The son of" "Cushi, and great-grandson of Hezekiah, and the ninth in the" order of the minor prophets. He prophesied in the days of "Josiah, king ... Read more about Zephaniah...

Zephath

"Beacon; watch-tower, a Canaanite town; called also Hormah" "(q.v.), Judg. 1:17. It has been identified with the pass of" "es-Sufah, but with greater probability with S'beita." ... Read more about Zephath...

Zephathah

"A valley in the west of Judah, near Mareshah; the scene of Asa's" conflict with Zerah the Ethiopian (2 Chr. 14:9-13). Identified with the Wady Safieh. ... Read more about Zephathah...

Zerah

"Sunrise. (1.) An "Ethiopian," probably Osorkon II., the" successor of Shishak on the throne of Egypt. With an enormous "army, the largest we read of in Scripture, he invaded the" kingdom of Judah in ... Read more about Zerah...

Zered

"=Zared, luxuriance; willow bush, a brook or valley communicating" with the Dead Sea near its southern extremity (Num. 21:12; Deut. "2:14). It is called the "brook of the willows" (Isa. 15:7) and" "t ... Read more about Zered...

Zereda

"The fortress, a city on the north of Mount Ephraim; the" birthplace of Jeroboam (1 Kings 11:26). It is probably the same "as Zaretan (Josh. 3:16), Zererath (Judg. 7:22), Zartanah (1" "Kings 4:12), o ... Read more about Zereda...

Zeredathah

A place in the plain of Jordan; the same as Zarthan (2 Chr. 4:17; 1 Kings 7:46). Here Solomon erected the foundries in which Hiram made the great castings of bronze for the temple. ... Read more about Zeredathah...

Zererath

"(Judg. 7:22), perhaps identical with Zereda or Zeredathah. Some" "identify it with Zahrah, a place about 3 miles west of" Beth-shean. ... Read more about Zererath...

Zeresh

"Star of Venus, the wife of Haman, whom she instigated to prepare" a gallows for Mordecai (Esther 5:10). ... Read more about Zeresh...

Zeruah

"Stricken, mother of Jeroboam, the first king of the ten tribes" (1 Kings 11:26). ... Read more about Zeruah...

Zerubbabel

"The seed of Babylon, the son of Salathiel or Shealtiel (Hag." "1:1; Zorobabel, Matt. 1:12); called also the son of Pedaiah (1" "Chr. 3:17-19), i.e., according to a frequent usage of the word" son; t ... Read more about Zerubbabel...

Zeruiah

"Stricken of the Lord, David's sister, and the mother of Abishai," "Joab, and Asahel (1 Chr. 2:16), who were the three leading" "heroes of David's army, and being his nephews, they were" admitted to ... Read more about Zeruiah...

Zetham

"Olive planter, a Levite (1 Chr. 23:8)." ... Read more about Zetham...

Zethan

A Benjamite (1 Chr. 7:10). ... Read more about Zethan...

Zia

"Fear, a Gadite (1 Chr. 5:13)." ... Read more about Zia...

Ziba

"Post; statue, "a servant of the house of Saul" (2 Sam. 9:2), who" "informed David that Mephibosheth, a son of Jonathan, was alive." "He afterwards dealt treacherously toward Mephibosheth, whom he" s ... Read more about Ziba...

Zibeon

Robber; or dyed. (1.) A Hivite (Gen. 36:2). "(2.) A Horite, and son of Seir (Gen. 36:20). ... Read more about Zibeon...

Zibia

"Gazelle, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:9)." ... Read more about Zibia...

Zibiah

The mother of King Joash (2 Kings 12:1; 2 Chr. 24:1). ... Read more about Zibiah...

Zichri

Remembered; illustrious. (1.) A Benjamite chief (1 Chr. 8:19). "(2.) Another of the same tribe (1 Chr. 8:23). ... Read more about Zichri...

Ziddim

"Sides, a town of Naphtali (Josh. 19:35), has been identified" "with Kefr-Hattin, the "village of the Hittites," about 5 miles" west of Tiberias. ... Read more about Ziddim...

Zidkijah

"The Lord is righteous, one who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah" (Neh. 10:1). ... Read more about Zidkijah...

Zidon

"A fishery, a town on the Mediterranean coast, about 25 miles" "north of Tyre. It received its name from the "first-born" of" "Canaan, the grandson of Noah (Gen. 10:15, 19). It was the first" "home o ... Read more about Zidon...

Zif

"Brightness; splendour; i.e., "the flower month," mentioned only" "in 1 Kings 6:1, 37, as the "second month." It was called Iyar by" the later Jews. (See [685]MONTH.) ... Read more about Zif...

Ziha

Drought. (1.) The name of a family of Nethinim (Ezra 2:43; Neh. 7:46). (2.) A ruler among the Nethinim (Neh. 11:21). ... Read more about Ziha...

Ziklag

"A town in the Negeb, or south country of Judah (Josh. 15:31), in" the possession of the Philistines when David fled to Gath from "Ziph with all his followers. Achish, the king, assigned him" Ziklag ... Read more about Ziklag...

Zillah

"Shadow, one of the wives of Lamech, of the line of Cain, and" "mother of Tubal-cain (Gen. 4:19, 22)." ... Read more about Zillah...

Zilpah

"Drooping, Leah's handmaid, and the mother of Gad and Asher (Gen." 30:9-13). ... Read more about Zilpah...

Zilthai

"Shadow (i.e., protection) of Jehovah. (1.) A Benjamite (1 Chr." 8:20). (2.) One of the captains of the tribe of Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:20). ... Read more about Zilthai...

Zimmah

Mischief. (1.) A Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 6:20). "(2.) Another Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 6:42). "(3.) The father of Joah (2 Chr. 29:12). ... Read more about Zimmah...

Zimran

"Vine-dressers; celebrated, one of the sons of Abraham by Keturah" (Gen. 25:2). ... Read more about Zimran...

Zimri

"Praise-worthy. (1.) A son of Salu, slain by Phinehas, the son of" "Eleazar, because of his wickedness in bringing a Midianitish" woman into his tent (Num. 25:6-15). "(2.) Murdered Elah at Tirzah, an ... Read more about Zimri...

Zin

"A low palm-tree, the south-eastern corner of the desert et-Tih," "the wilderness of Paran, between the Gulf of Akabah and the head" of the Wady Guraiyeh (Num. 13:21). To be distinguished from the wi ... Read more about Zin...

Zina

"Ornament, one of the sons of Shimei (1 Chr. 23:10)." ... Read more about Zina...

Zion

"Sunny; height, one of the eminences on which Jerusalem was" "built. It was surrounded on all sides, except the north, by deep" "valleys, that of the Tyropoeon (q.v.) separating it from Moriah" "(q.v ... Read more about Zion...

Zior

"Littleness, a city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:54); the" "modern Si'air, 4 1/2 miles north-north-east of Hebron." ... Read more about Zior...

Ziph

Flowing. (1.) A son of Jehaleleel (1 Chr. 4:16). "(2.) A city in the south of Judah (Josh. 15:24), probably at the pass of Sufah. "(3.) A city in the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15:55), identified "wit ... Read more about Ziph...

Ziphah

A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 4:16). ... Read more about Ziphah...

Ziphron

"Sweet odour, a city on the northern border of Palestine (Num." "34:9), south-east of Hamath." ... Read more about Ziphron...

Zippor

"A little bird, the father of Balak, king of Moab (Num. 22:2, 4)." ... Read more about Zippor...

Zipporah

"A female bird. Reuel's daughter, who became the wife of Moses" "(Ex. 2:21). In consequence of the event recorded in Ex. 4:24-26," "she and her two sons, Gershom and Eliezer, when so far on the" "way ... Read more about Zipporah...

Zithri

"The Lord protects, a Levite, son of Uzziel (Ex. 6:22)." ... Read more about Zithri...

Ziz

"Projecting; a flower, a cleft or pass, probably that near" "En-gedi, which leads up from the Dead Sea (2 Chr. 20:16) in the" direction of Tekoa; now Tell Hasasah. ... Read more about Ziz...

Ziza

Splendour; abundance. (1.) A Simeonite prince (1 Chr. 4:37-43). "(2.) A son of Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11:20). ... Read more about Ziza...

Zizah

A Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. 23:11). ... Read more about Zizah...

Zoan

"(Old Egypt. Sant= "stronghold," the modern San). A city on the" "Tanitic branch of the Nile, called by the Greeks Tanis. It was" built seven years after Hebron in Palestine (Num. 13:22). This "great ... Read more about Zoan...

Zoar

"Small, a town on the east or south-east of the Dead Sea, to" "which Lot and his daughters fled from Sodom (Gen. 19:22, 23). It" "was originally called Bela (14:2, 8). It is referred to by the" proph ... Read more about Zoar...

Zobah

"=Aram-Zobah, (Ps. 60, title), a Syrian province or kingdom to" "the south of Coele-Syria, and extending from the eastern slopes" of Lebanon north and east toward the Euphrates. Saul and David had wa ... Read more about Zobah...

Zohar

Brightness. (1.) The father of Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23:8). "(2.) One of the sons of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Ex. 6:15). ... Read more about Zohar...

Zoheleth

"The serpent-stone, a rocky plateau near the centre of the" "village of Siloam, and near the fountain of En-rogel, to which" the women of the village resort for water (1 Kings 1:5-9). Here Adonijah ( ... Read more about Zoheleth...

Zoheth

"Snatching (?), one of the sons of Ishi (1 Chr. 4:20)." ... Read more about Zoheth...

Zophah

"Spreading out, a son of Helem (1 Chr. 7:35), a chief of Asher." ... Read more about Zophah...

Zophar

"Chirping, one of Job's friends who came to condole with him in" "his distress (Job 2:11. The LXX. render here "king of the" "Mineans" = Ma'in, Maonites, Judg. 10:12, in Southern Arabia). He" "is cal ... Read more about Zophar...

Zophim Field of

"Field of watchers, a place in Moab on the range of Pisgah (Num." "23:14). To this place Balak brought Balaam, that he might from" thence curse the children of Israel. Balaam could only speak the "wo ... Read more about Zophim Field of...

Zorah

"Place of wasps, a town in the low country of Judah, afterwards" "given to Dan (Josh. 19:41; Judg. 18:2), probably the same as" "Zoreah (Josh. 15:33). This was Samson's birthplace (Judg. 13:2," "25), ... Read more about Zorah...

Zuph

"Honeycomb, a Kohathite Levite, ancestor of Elkanah and Samuel (1" Sam. 1:1); called also Zophai (1 Chr. 6:26). ... Read more about Zuph...

Zuph Land of

"(1 Sam. 9:5, 6), a district in which lay Samuel's city, Ramah." "It was probably so named after Elkanah's son, Zuph (1 Chr. 6:26," marg.). ... Read more about Zuph Land of...

Zur

Rock. (1.) One of the five Midianite kings whom the Israelites defeated and put to death (Num. 31:8). "(2.) A Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:30). ... Read more about Zur...

Zuriel

"Rock of God, chief of the family of the Merarites (Num. 3:35) at" the time of the Exodus. ... Read more about Zuriel...

Zurishaddai

"Rock of the Almighty, the father of Shelumiel, who was chief of" the tribe of Simeon when Israel was encamped at Sinai (Num. 1:6; 2:12). ... Read more about Zurishaddai...

Zuzims

"Restless; sprouting, were smitten "in Ham" by Chedorlaomer and" his allies (Gen. 14:5). Some have identified this tribe with the Zamzummims (q.v.). " ... Read more about Zuzims...

”Is PATRIOTISM Sinful?”

"God's Goals"

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The Adversary’s Goals:

SCRIPTURE:

seeking whom he may DEVOUR."

SCRIPTURE:"The ‘Thief’ (Devil) cometh not, but for to steal, to kill and to DESTROY." John 10:10

QUESTION: Do you Believe Satan the Adversary Succeeds?___ Or Fails?___

God the Father’s Goals:

SCRIPTURE:

sent NOT His Son into the world to condemn the world, but that the world though Him might be SAVED! See John 3:16 John 3:17

SCRIPTURE: "Beloved, be not ignorant of this one thing, ... The Lord is ... NOT willing that any should perish, but that ALL should come to repentance. 2 Pet 3:9

QUESTION: Do you Believe God the Father Succeeds?___ Or Fails?___

God the Son’s Goals:

SCRIPTURE:

come to seek and to SAVE that which is lost!" Luk 19:10

but to SAVE the world. John 12:47

SCRIPTURE: "And I, if I be lifted up from the Earth, I WILL DRAW ALL men unto Me." Joh 12:32

QUESTION: Do you Believe God the Son (Jesus Christ): Succeeds?___ Or Fails?___ center>

God the Spirit’s Goals:

SCRIPTURE:

"'I ’WILL’'

when He is come 'He ’WILL’' testify of Me:

SCRIPTURE: "He ’WILL’ reprove the world [convict, convince, correct] of sin, of righteousness, and of judgment: John 16:7

SCRIPTURE: (1) Of sin, because they believe not on me; ... (2) Of righteousness, because I go to my Father; ...(3) Of judgment, because the 'Prince of this World' IS JUDGED!^[A] John 16:8-10

QUESTION: Do you think God the Spirit Succeeds?___ Or Fails?___

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